
GNU/Linux Command-Line Tools Summary

Gareth Anderson


           <somecsstudent(at)gmail.com>

   Chris Karakas - Conversion from LyX to DocBook SGML, Index generation
   Revision History
   Revision 1.1   28th February 2006 Revised by: CK
   Corrected typos, generated new index (9000 index entries!).
   Revision 1.0   6th February 2006  Revised by: GA
   Major restructuring, now in a docbook book format. Removed large
   chunks of content and revised other parts (removed chapters and
   sectioned some areas more). This is likely the final release by the
   author, I hope that someone finds this guide useful as I do not intend
   to continue work on this guide.
   Revision 0.7.1 25th February 2005 Revised by: CK
   Set special characters in math mode, produced PDF and PS with Computer
   Modern fonts in OT1 encoding and created correct SGML for key
   combinations.
   Revision 0.7   5th December 2004  Revised by: GA
   Updated document with new grammatical review. Re-ordered the entire
   Text section. Removed a fair amount of content.
   Revision v0.6  20th April 2004    Revised by: GA
   Attempted to fix document according to TLDP criticisms. Added notes
   and tips more sectioning. Now complying to the open group standards
   for the UNIX
   system trademark. Document should be ready for TLDP site.
   Revision v0.5  6th October 2003   Revised by: GA
   Fixed a variety of errors as according to the review and made some
   consistency improvements to the document.
   Revision v0.4  15th July 2003     Revised by: GA
   Made small improvements to the document as suggested (so far) by the
   thorough TLDP review, improved consistency of document and made small
   content additions.
   Revision v0.3  26th June 2003     Revised by: GA
   Minor errors fixed, updated the appendix with information for finding
   where a tool is from. Fixed referencing/citation problems and improved
   further reading and intro sections, added an audio section.
   Revision v0.2  20th April 2003    Revised by: GA
   This is the initial public release. Added more code-style then before,
   broke text-section into more subsections. Improved consistency of
   document and fixed various index entries.
   Revision v0.1  27th March 2003    Revised by: GA
   This is the initial draft release (the first release to be converted
   from LyX to DocBook SGML).

   This document is an attempt to provide a summary of useful
   command-line tools available to a GNU/Linux based operating system,
   the tools listed are designed to benefit the majority of users and
   have being chosen at the authors discretion. This document is not a
   comprehensive list of every existent tool available to a GNU/Linux
   based system, nor does it have in-depth explanations of how things
   work. It is a summary which can be used to learn about and how to use
   many of the tools available to a GNU/Linux based operating system.
     _________________________________________________________________

   Table of Contents
   1. Introduction

        1.1. Formats
        1.2. Who would want to read this guide?
        1.3. Who would not want to read this guide?
        1.4. Availability of sources
        1.5. Conventions used in this guide
        1.6. Resources used to create this document
        1.7. Feedback
        1.8. Contributors

   2. Legal

        2.1. Disclaimer
        2.2. License

   3. The Unix Tools Philosophy
   4. Shell Tips

        4.1. General Shell Tips
        4.2. The command-line history
        4.3. Other Key combinations
        4.4. Virtual Terminals and screen

   5. Help
   6. Directing Input/Output

        6.1. Concept Definitions
        6.2. Usage
        6.3. Command Substitution
        6.4. Performing more than one command

   7. Working with the file-system

        7.1. Moving around the filesystem

              7.1.1. Finding files

        7.2. Working with files and folders
        7.3. Mass Rename/copy/link Tools

   8. Finding information about the system

        8.1. Date/Time/Calendars
        8.2. Finding information about partitions

   9. Controlling the system

        9.1. Mounting and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions)

        9.2. Shutting Down/Rebooting the System
        9.3. Controlling Processes
        9.4. Controlling services

   10. Managing users

        10.1. Users/Groups

   11. Text Related Tools

        11.1. Text Editors
        11.2. Text Viewing Tools
        11.3. Text Information Tools
        11.4. Text manipulation tools
        11.5. Text Conversion/Filter Tools

              11.5.1. Conversion tools

        11.6. Finding Text Within Files

   12. Mathematical tools
   13. Network Commands

        13.1. Network Configuration
        13.2. Internet Specific Commands
        13.3. Remote Administration Related

   14. Security

        14.1. Some basic Security Tools
        14.2. File Permissions

   15. Archiving Files

        15.1. tar (tape archiver)
        15.2. rsync
        15.3. Compression

   16. Graphics tools (command line based)
   17. Working with MS-DOS files
   18. Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   19. Miscellaneous
   20. Mini-Guides

        20.1. RPM: Redhat Package Management System
        20.2. Checking the Hard Disk for errors
        20.3. Duplicating disks
        20.4. Wildcards

              20.4.1. Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
              20.4.2. Regular Expressions
              20.4.3.
                      Useful categories of characters (as defined by the P
                      OSIX standard)

   A. Appendix

        A.1. Finding Packages/Tools

              A.1.1. Finding more useful tools
              A.1.2. Finding a particular tool(s)
              A.1.3. Finding package(s)

        A.2. Further Reading

              A.2.1. General Further Reading
              A.2.2. Specific Further reading
              A.2.3. Online Manual And Info Pages

        A.3. GNU Free Documentation License

              A.3.1. PREAMBLE
              A.3.2. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS
              A.3.3. VERBATIM COPYING
              A.3.4. COPYING IN QUANTITY
              A.3.5. MODIFICATIONS
              A.3.6. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
              A.3.7. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
              A.3.8. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
              A.3.9. TRANSLATION
              A.3.10. TERMINATION
              A.3.11. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

   Bibliography
   Index
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 1. Introduction

   This document is an attempt to summarise the many command-line-based
   tools available to a GNU/Linux based operating system. This guide is
   not a complete listing (I doubt it's possible to document all
   available programs), this document lists many tools which are
   available to GNU/Linux systems and which are, or can be useful to the
   majority of users.

   Each tool description provides a quick overview of it's function and
   some useful options for that individual tool.

   The tools listed that require a GUI, usually the X windowing system,
   are those listed in the Graphics Tools section. All other tools are
   completely command-line-based and do not require a GUI to run.

   If you are looking for information on GUI based tools you will need to
   look elsewhere.

   Also note that a few of the tools in this guide are bash (the
   Bourne-Again-SHell) specific, tools specific to other shells are not
   listed in this document.

   For some of the tools that are harder to use, or perform a more
   complex task, there are several mini-tutorials (or mini-guides;
   Chapter 20) within this document.

   Where a mini-guide was considered unncessary, detailed descriptions
   that explain in detail how a particular tool works, and some examples
   of how to use it are provided.

   Please note that the word "tool" is used interchangeably with the word
   "command", both have the same meaning (at least in this guide). For a
   more detailed explanation, read about the UNIX Tools Philosophy here:
   Chapter 3 or visit the links in the appendix, Section A.2.2.1.
   Tip To find out which tools are bash specific


   To find out which tools are bash specific you can type:
   enable -a
     _________________________________________________________________

1.1. Formats

   This document is available in the following formats:
     * HTML (HyperText Markup Language), many HTML files, one per
       section, for viewing with any browser
     * HTML (HyperText Markup Language), one big HTML file
     * TXT (ASCII Text)
     * RTF (Rich Text Format)
     * PDF (Portable Document Format)
     * PS.GZ (Compressed Postscript)
     * SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language)(with the Appendix and
       the Bibliography)
     * LYX (LaTeX frontend LyX)(with the Appendix and the Bibliography)

   Note RTF: Page numbers


   In order to get correct page numbers (and often to get the images
   working) in Microsoft Word, type the following after opening the
   document:
    1. CTRL-END
    2. CTRL-A
    3. F9

   In Word Viewer 97, you must instead do:
    1. CTRL-END
    2. ALT
    3. V
    4. N
    5. ALT
    6. V
    7. P

   See The OpenJade RTF backend for more details.
   Important Important: Downloads for offline reading!


   If you want to download the HTML or RTF formats for offline reading,
   you will need to download the images as well - PNG for HTML and BMP
   for RTF, including the callouts! To save you the hassle, I have
   compiled the following gzipped tar archives for offline reading:
     * TAR.GZ (Compressed TAR Archive), many HTML files with images
     * TAR.GZ (Compressed TAR Archive), one big HTML file with images
     * TAR.GZ (Compressed TAR Archive), SGML file with images
     * TAR.GZ (Compressed TAR Archive), RTF file with images

   A tarball containing all the above is also available:
     * TAR.GZ (Compressed TAR Archive), All files
     _________________________________________________________________

1.2. Who would want to read this guide?

   Anyone who is interested in learning about the tools (also known as
   commands) available to them when using their GNU/Linux based operating
   system.

   Why would you want to learn how to use the command line (and available
   tools)? The Command Line Interface (CLI), while difficult to learn, is
   the quickest and most efficient way to use a computer for many
   different tasks. The CLI is the normal method of use for most UNIX
   system administrators, programmers and some power users. While a GUI
   is better suited to some tasks, many operations are best suited to the
   CLI.

   The major motivation behind learning the GNU/Linux CLI is the authors
   idea that, with software in general, the more time spent learning
   something equals less time spent performing that particular task
   (authors opinion only).

   This guide is aimed at beginners to intermediate users who want to
   learn about the commandline tools available to them. Advanced users
   may wish to use it as a command reference, however this document aims
   to list commands of interest, as judged by the authors opinion, it is
   not designed to be completely comprehensive, see the appendix, Section
   A.2.1 for further information. Or if you are not looking for a command
   reference guide, but a more gentle introduction to GNU/Linux you may
   be interested in the Introduction to Linux guide authored by Machtelt
   Garrels.

   This guide could also be considered a summarised version of the Linux
   Cookbook. If you are looking for a book with more detailed
   descriptions of each tool have a look at the Linux Cookbook Homepage,
   also check out the command list from "Linux in a Nutshell 3rd Edition"
   for an index of 300+ commands and their explanations.
     _________________________________________________________________

1.3. Who would not want to read this guide?

   Anyone who is not interested in the command line, or anyone looking
   for a detailed reference to all available GNU/Linux tools should look
   elsewhere. This is only a summary, while it does list many commands,
   it's not a complete listing (I don't think it's possible to make a
   complete listing anyway).

   This document would not be unlikely to be of interest to those who
   already have an expert knowledge of the command line interface and do
   require any reference information. Or those readers who require
   detailed lists of options for each command, the man pages are better
   suited to this purpose.
     _________________________________________________________________

1.4. Availability of sources

   The modifiable sources of the original book (in english), are
   available in LyX format (LyX Document Processor) or Machine-translated
   SGML (SGML markup language).

   LyX is a completely free document processor based on LaTeX,
   downloadable from the LyX homepage..

   See Section 1.1 for the modifiable sources of this document. These are
   the official versions. We (the translators and current maintainers)
   plan to continue work on this document and add new chapters and
   enhancements. If you want to see the version we are currently working
   on (the "bleeding edge" version), check the GNU/Linux Command-Line
   Tools Summary Homepage from time to time (kindly hosted by Chris
   Karakas).
     _________________________________________________________________

1.5. Conventions used in this guide

   The following conventions are used within this guide:

          italic Anything appearing in italic, like this is either an
          executable command or emphasized text.

          Tools (executable commands) are in italics to prevent
          confusion. Some tools have names which are real english words,
          such as the "locate" tool.

   key
          combinations Are represented by using a '-' (dash sign)
          inbetween the key(s), which must be used in combination. All
          combinations are also printed in italics to improve clarity.
          For example CTRL-Z means hold down the Control key and press
          the z key.

          admonitions Admonitions are little pictures used to emphasize
          something of importance to the reader.

          The five types used are:

          Note This is a note


   Notes often give important information about a tool.

          Tip This is a tip


   This will offer a useful switch or useful way to use a tool.

          Important This is something important


   This is something that is considered very important. Consider it like
   a note with extra importance, they are usually there to save the
   reader time.

          Caution This is a caution


   This will inform you of something that you be careful about (because
   it could be harmful to your system).

          Warning This is a warning


   This will inform you of something that you shouldn't do (because it
   probably will break something within your system).

   code examples
          Code examples are shown for most commands.

          Below is an example of what code looks like:

Hello World, I'm a code example. :)

   command
          syntax (or a similar phrase) simply shows how you would
          normally use the command. Often real examples are used instead
          of explaining the command syntax.

          The phrase " Command syntax" is always followed by the way you
          would type a command in a shell.

          The standard syntax for any tool is usually:

command -options file

          Note Note


   Note that some tools do not accept options.

          wildcards Also note that most commands, even when not
          explicitly stated, will work with standard wildcards (or
          globbing patterns) such as *, [A-Z] and various other standard
          wildcards. Refer to Section 20.4.1 for further information.

   access
          keys Access keys enable navigation through the document,
          without relying on a mouse. The following keys have been given
          special meaning in this document:

        P
                Previous page.

        N
                Next page.

        H
                Home of the document (Table of Contents).

        U
                Up (takes you one level up the section hierarchy).

          If you also happen to be reading the document from its original
          location, then the following access keys can also be used:

        S
                Start (takes you to the author's start page).

        T
                The current ("This") page, without the Sitemenu on the
                left.

        M
                The current page in a frameset, where the left frame
                contains a Menu.

   To use the access keys, you have to simultaneously press a modifier
   key, which may vary from browser to browser. For example in
   NN6+/Mozilla, the modifier key is ALT, so you have to use ALT-N to go
   to the next page, and ALT-P to come back. In other browsers such as
   IE6, the access keys just give focus to the associated link, so the
   sequence becomes ALT-N Enter . Try it, you'll like it!
   [icon_smile.png]
     _________________________________________________________________

1.6. Resources used to create this document

   To create the GNU/Linux Command-Line Tools Summary, I used LyX, the
   document processor. To convert the LyX files to DocBook SGML I used
   the LyX-to-X Scripts created by Chris Karakas.

   You may also want to check out the db2lyx package, created by Dr. B
   Guillion, which can be used to convert LyX files to XML DocBook and
   XML DocBook to LyX.

   I also had assistance from various The Linux Documentation Project
   volunteers (see the contributors section Section 1.8 for specific
   details).
     _________________________________________________________________

1.7. Feedback

   Feedback is necessary for the advancement of this guide. Positive,
   constructive criticism is encouraged. If you have ideas, suggestions,
   advice, or problems with this guide, please send an email to the
   author Gareth Anderson.
   Important Contributions


   If you wish to make contributions it is recommended (if possible) to
   read the LyX file(s) for this document. They contain various notes
   which you can't see in the other versions.

   These notes highlight the areas that need contributions, certain tools
   which I cannot understand, tools which have not been added, or tools
   which were removed. These notes also explain some of the structure of
   this document.
     _________________________________________________________________

1.8. Contributors

   As you may be able to see, parts of this guide are based off various
   advice columns on GNU/Linux, anything that has being directly quoted
   from an article can be found in the references, Bibliography, section
   of this document.

   The following is a list of people who have made a significant
   contribution to this document, in a rough chronological order.

   Chris Karakas:
          Chris allowed the use of his lyxtox scripts to convert the LyX
          file of the document to working DocBook SGML output (to learn
          how to use the lyxtox scripts yourself, see Document processing
          with LyX and SGML).

          + Chris provided useful suggestions and advice, and added an
            index listing for many of the commands.
          + Chris is also responsible for the great looking HTML file for
            this document (the CSS file and HTML customisations are
            completely his work).
          + Chris has also helped fix up problems in the document (many
            times), especially with docbook/sgml related problems and LyX
            related issues.
          + Chris has also improved the structure of the document by
            adding labels and fixing minor errors.

   William West:
          William provided a thorough review of the document as required
          by the Linux Documentation Project. He is responsible for a
          variety of improvements to the quality of this document.

          His contributions include:

          + Improvements to the readability of this document.
          + Improvements to the structure and consistency of this
            document.
          + Various grammar improvements throughout the document.
          + Repair of some minor technical errors.

   Tabatha Persad:
          Tabatha, as the Linux Documentation Project Review Coordinator
          (at the time) also gave a brief review of this document. Her
          general advice was used to improve the structure, language and
          grammar of the document.

   Rahul Sundaram:
          Rahul provided a brief review of this document for the Linux
          Documentation Project. Advice from his brief review was
          integrated into this document to improve readability and
          structure, several references were added as recommended by
          Rahual.

   David Lawyer:
          David's criticism of the document (via the TLDP discuss list)
          were listened to, and attempts to improve the document were
          made. A number of his criticisms were addressed and improved.

   George Harmon:
          George provided a second language review. His detailed review
          of the material allowed me to improve the general grammar of
          the document and some minor errors.

   Machtelt Garrels (tille):
          Machtelt provided tips in regard to referencing the correct LDP
          documents from this guide. As well as general advice on
          improvements to the guide.
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 2. Legal

   The legal chapter provides information about the disclaimer that
   applies to the entire document and the licensing information.
     _________________________________________________________________

2.1. Disclaimer

   No liability for the contents of this documents can be accepted. Use
   the concepts, examples and other content at your own risk. There may
   be errors and inaccuracies, that may of course be damaging to your
   system. Although this is highly unlikely, you should proceed with
   caution. The author does not accept any responsibility for any damage
   incurred.

   All copyrights are held by their respective owners, unless
   specifically noted otherwise. Use of a term in this document should
   not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service
   mark.

   Naming of particular products or brands should not be seen as
   endorsements.

   UNIX is a registered trademark of The Open Group.
     _________________________________________________________________

2.2. License

   Copyright  2003 - 2006 Gareth Anderson. Permission is granted to
   copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the
   GNU Free Documentation License,Documentation License} Version 1.1 or
   any later version published by the Free Software
   Foundation;Foundation} with no Invariant Sections, with no Front-Cover
   Texts, and with no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license can be
   found in the section called the GNU Free Documentation License or at
   the GNU Documentation License Site.
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 3. The Unix Tools Philosophy

   A tool is a simple program, usually designed for a specific purpose,
   it is sometimes referred to (at least throughout this document) as a
   command.

   The " Unix tools philosophy" emerged during the creation of the UNIX
   operating system, after the breakthrough invention of the pipe '|'
   (refer to Chapter 6 for information on using the pipe).

   The pipe allowed the output of one program to be sent to the input of
   another. The tools philosophy was to have small programs to accomplish
   a particular task instead of trying to develop large monolithic
   programs to do a large number of tasks. To accomplish more complex
   tasks, tools would simply be connected together, using pipes.

   All the core UNIX system tools were designed so that they could
   operate together. The original text-based editors (and even TeX and
   LaTeX) use ASCII (the American text encoding standard; an open
   standard) and you can use tools such as; sed, awk, vi, grep, cat,
   more, tr and various other text-based tools in conjunction with these
   editors.

   Using this philosophy programmers avoided writing a program (within
   their larger program) that had already been written by someone else
   (this is sometimes called code recycling). For example, command line
   spell checkers are used by a number of different applications instead
   of having each application create its own own spell checker.

   This philosophy lives on today in GNU/Linux and various other UNIX
   system-based operating systems (FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, etc.).

   For further information (articles) on the UNIX tools philosophy please
   see the further reading section, here: Section A.2.2.1
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 4. Shell Tips

   The shell tips chapter provides handy tricks that you may wish to use
   when you are using a GNU/Linux shell (the command line interface).
   This information includes handy shortcut key combinations, the shell's
   command history and information on virtual terminals.
   Tip If you can't boot into your system


   If your having problems booting into your system you may like to use a
   shell so you can boot into your system and attempt to fix things up
   again.

   To do this you need to pass the "init=/bin/sh" to your system before
   you boot up.

   If you don't know how to do this please see Chapter 14, the technique
   is the same except this time you pass "init=bin/sh" rather than
   "single".
     _________________________________________________________________

4.1. General Shell Tips

   Automatic Command
          Completion Use the TAB key and BASH will attempt to complete
          the command for you automatically. You can use it to complete
          command (tool) names. You can also use it when working with the
          file-system, when changing directories, copying files et
          cetera.

          There are also other lesser known ways to use automatic command
          completion (for example completing user names):[1]

        ESC-Y  (Y: special character)
                Will attempt to complete the command name for you. If it
                fails it will either list the possible completions (if
                they exist). If there are none it will simply beep
                (and/or) flash the screen.

        CTRL-X-Y  (Y: special character)
                Lists the possible completions (it won't attempt to
                complete it for you) or beep if there are no possible
                completions.

          Special-characters:

          Use the following special characters combined with either ESC-Y
          or CTRL-X-Y , where Y is some special character. For example
          ESC-$ or CTRL-X-$ to complete an environment variable name.

          + ~ (tilde) complete a user name
          + @ (at sign) complete a machine name
          + $ (dollars sign) complete an environment variable name
          + ! (exclamation mark) a magic character for completing a
            command name or a file name (/). The ! special character has
            the same function as the TAB key. It works in some other
            situations; for example when completing man page names.

          alias The alias command will list your current aliases. You can
          use unalias to remove the alias (to disable it just for one
          command add a "\" (back-slash) before the command)...

          An alias allows one command to be substituted for another. This
          is used to make a command do something else or to automatically
          add certain options. This can be either be done during one
          session using the alias command (see below) or the information
          can be added to the .bashrc file (found in the users home
          directory).

          Below is an example of what an alias section (within your
          .bashrc file) might look like:

# my personal aliases
alias cp='cp -vi' #to prompt when copying if you want to overwrite and will tel
l you where information is going
alias rm='rm -i' #Prompts you if you really want to remove it.
alias mv='mv -i' #Prompts you if you are going to overwrite something

          On any Mandrake/Mandriva Linux system the global aliases (for
          all users) are all in /etc/profile.d/alias.sh. The above listed
          commands already have aliases, as well as several other
          commonly used commands.

   set
          -x set is one of bash's inbuilt commands, try looking in the
          bash manual for its many usage options.

          Using set with the -x option will make bash print out each
          command it is going to run before it runs it.

          This can be useful to find out what is happening with certain
          commands such as things being quoted that contain wildcards or
          special symbols that could cause problems, or complex aliases.
          Use set +x to turn this back off.

          Examples

          After using set -x you can run the command:

ls

          The output printed before the command runs (for example):

+ ls -F --color=auto

          Which means that the command is really an alias to run ls with
          the -F and --color=auto options. Use a "\" (backslash) before
          the command to run it without the alias.

   \ (backslash)
          The backslash escape character can be used before a shell
          command to override any aliases.

          For example if rm was made into an alias for rm -i then typing
          "rm" would actually run rm -i.

          However, typing \rm lets the shell ignore the alias and just
          run rm (its runs exactly what you type), this way it won't
          confirm if you want to delete things.

          Caution Using rm


   Please note that the alias for the remove command is there for a
   reason. Using it incorrectly could remove files which you don't want
   removed.
   Only use \rm if you know exactly what you are doing (recovering files
   is not easy, rm does not send things to a recycle bin).

          The "\" character can be used before special characters (such
          as a space or a wildcard...) to stop bash from trying to expand
          them (a directory name with a space in it is possible this
          way). For example you could type cd My\ Directory\ With\ Spaces
          which normally wouldn't work.

          The "\" character can also be used to stop bash from expanding
          certain symbols (as an alternative you could use single
          quotation marks, although you may need to use both).

          Tip The TAB Key


   Please note that using the TAB key (automatic-command-completion) will
   automatically use escapes for spaces (so you don't have to type them
   manually).

          script The "script" command creates a typescript, or "capture
          log" of a shell session - it writes a copy of your session to a
          file, including commands you type and their output.

   ~ (tilde character)
          The tilde character is used as an alias to a users home
          directory.

          For example, if your user-name was "fred", instead of typing cd
          /home/fred you could simply type cd ~. Or to get to fred's tmp
          directory (under his home directory) you could type cd ~/tmp.

          Tip Home directory shortcut


   ~ (tilde) can also be used as a shortcut to other users home
   directories, simply type: ~user_name and it will take you to the
   user's home directory. Note that you need to spell the username
   exactly correct, no wildcards.



   set bell-style
          none This particular set command will turn off the system bell
          from the commandline (use xset -b for X windows). If you want
          the bell to stay off pernamently (no audible bell) then you can
          add this command to your ".bashrc" or ".bash_profile" (just add
          it to the same one you have your alises in...).

          reset The reset command re-initializes your current terminal.
          This can be useful when the text from your terminal's text
          becomes garbled, simply type "reset" and this will fix your
          terminal.

          exit Closes your current terminal (with x-terminals) or
          logs-out. Also try CTRL-D .

          logout Logs out of a terminal, also try CTRL-D .

          echo A little command that repeats anything you type.

          Example:

echo "hello world"

          Simply displays " hello world".

          Example:

echo rm -R *

          This will output what will be passed to the rm command (and
          therefore what would be deleted), putting echo before a command
          renders it harmless (it just expands wildcards so you know what
          it will do).

          Also try using the -e option with echo. This will allow you to
          use the escape character sequences to format the output of a
          line. Such as '\t' for tab, '\n' for newline etc.

          Tip Using echo to prevent accidents


   Typing: echo command(s) could save you the trouble of accidentally
   doing something you didn't expect.
   Using echo allows you to expand the wildcards to understand what will
   happen before you actually run the command.
     _________________________________________________________________

4.2. The command-line history

   Using the command
          history Use the up and down key's to scroll through previously
          typed commands. Press [Enter] to execute them or use the left
          and right arrow keys to edit the command first. Also see
          history (below).

   The history
          command The history command can be used to list Bash's log of
          the commands you have typed:

          This log is called the "history". To access it type:

history n

          This will only list the last n commands. Type "history"
          (without options) to see the the entire history list.

          You can also type !n to execute command number n. Use !! to
          execute the last command you typed.

          !-n will execute the command n times before (ie. !-1 is
          equivalent to !!).

          !string will execute the last command starting with that
          "string" and !?string? will execute the last command containing
          the word "string". For example:

!cd

          Will re-run the command that you last typed starting with "cd".

          " commandName !*" will execute the "commandName" with any
          arguments you used on your last command. This maybe useful if
          you make a spelling mistake, for example. If you typed:

emasc /home/fred/mywork.java /tmp/testme.java

          In an attempt to execute emacs on the above two files this will
          obviously fail. So what you can do is type:

emacs !*

          This will execute emacs with the arguments that you last typed
          on the command line. In other words this is equivalent to
          typing:

emacs /home/fred/mywork.java /tmp/testme.java

   Searching through the Command History ( CTRL-R )
          Use the CTRL-R key to perform a "reverse-i-search". For
          example, if you wanted to use the command you used the last
          time you used snort, you would type:

          CTRL-R then type "snort".

          What you will see in the console window is:

(reverse-i-search)`':

          After you have typed what you are looking for, use the CTRL-R
          key combination to scroll backward through the history.

          Use CTRL-R repeatedly to find every reference to the string
          you've entered. Once you've found the command you're looking
          for, use [Enter] to execute it.

          Alternatively, using the right or left arrow keys will place
          the command on an actual command line so you can edit it.
     _________________________________________________________________

4.3. Other Key combinations

   GNU/Linux shells have many shortcut keys which you can use to speed up
   your work, below is a rough list of some (also see CTRL-R the history
   section of the commands, over here, Section 4.2).

   The CTRL-D the "end-of-file" (EOF) key combination can be used to
   quickly log out of any terminal. CTRL-D is also used in programs such
   as "at" to signal that you have finished typing your commands (the EOF
   command).

   The CTRL-Z key combination is used to stop a process. It can be used
   to put something in the background temporarily.

   For example, if you were editing a file with vim or emacs just press
   CTRL-Z to regain control of the terminal do what you want and then
   type fg to bring it back. For further information please see Section
   9.3.
   Tip If fg doesn't work


   If fg doesn't work you may need to type jobs and then fg job_name or
   fg job_number

   The CTRL-A and CTRL-E key combinations are used for going to the start
   and end of the line on the command line. Use CTRL-A to jump to the
   start of the line, and CTRL-E to jump to the end of the line.

   The CTRL-K key combination can be used to cut or delete what is
   currently in front of the cursor.

   The CTRL-Y key combination can be used to paste the last thing you
   deleted (using CTRL-K or CTRL-W ).

   The CTRL-W key combination can be used to cut or delete the entire
   line that has being typed.
     _________________________________________________________________

4.4. Virtual Terminals and screen

   Using the key combination ALT-F* keys you may change to different
   virtual terminals. You will have several (usually 6) virtual terminals
   setup with shells. Number 7 is usually setup with X you need to use
   CTRL-ALT-F* to change to a terminal from within X (X as in the X
   windowing system).

          screen is a great program that allows you to switch between
          multiple virtual terminals on the one physical terminal that
          you are using. Its a command-line based window manager, clearly
          this isn't that useful if you do have virtual terminals, but
          its amazingly useful when you log into machines remotely, using
          ssh and similar, see Section 13.3. It works on
          key-combinations, you type

screen

          On the command-line to begin. Now you start with one virtual
          terminal by default, but using the key combination CTRL-A and
          then hitting "C" you can create another virtual terminal to
          use.

          Use CTRL-N to go to the next virtual terminal and CTRL-P to go
          to the previous virtual terminal. Also try hitting CTRL-A to go
          backwards and forwards between two particular terminals.

          screen also has various other abilities that you can test out.
          The documentation and guides are well written so please feel
          free to read the manual page or try searching the internet.
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 5. Help

   The help chapter provides information on how you may access the
   documentation of the GNU/Linux system. There is normally a document
   describing every single tool you have installed, even if its only
   brief...

          man This command displays summary information on a program from
          an online manual. For example typing man man will bring up the
          manual page for man (the manual page viewer). Note: q is the
          quit key.

          Command syntax:

man program_name

   Tip Also try


   Specifying the section of the manual page, sometimes the man page is
   different for the same tool in different sections, note sections are
   numbered 1 to 9. Use apropos to find which section number to look in.
   The syntax to look at a different section is:
man section_number tool_name

   For example:
man 2 time

   This will show you the man page called time in section 2, the
   equivalent page in section 1 is completely different

   man -K
          keyword Search the manual pages for a string, as in it will
          search all manual pages for a particular string within each
          individual man page, it will then prompt whether you would like
          to view each page it will find. Use double quotes " and " if
          there are spaces in the string you are typing.

          Caution Speed issue


   Please be warned that this method is going to be really, really slow.
   You are searching *all* man pages for a string

   man -f
          command This will list details associated with the command. The
          root user must run makewhatis (see below) before this command
          will work.

          Note Equivalent to whatis


   This command is the same as running whatis

          info Provides a more detailed hyper-text manual on a particular
          command, this only works for some commands.

          Command syntax:

info program_name

          whatis Displays a one line description of what a program does.
          The string needs to be an exact match, otherwise whatis won't
          output anything. Relies on the whatis database (see below).

          Command syntax:

whatis program_name

          makewhatis Make the whatis database for apropos, whatis and man
          -f.

          Note Root Privileges


   This takes some time and you require root privileges to do this.

          apropos Searches the whatis database for strings, similar to
          whatis except it finds and prints anything matching the string
          (or any part of the string). Also relies on the whatis database
          (see above).

          Command syntax:

apropos string

          Note Equivalent to...


   apropos is the same as doing man -k (lowercase k).

   Note Please note


   You need to run makewhatis (as root) so whatis, man -f and apropos
   will work.
   Tip Also try


   Using a program with the -?, --h, --help, and the -h options, they
   will display very short summary information on the command usage
   options.
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 6. Directing Input/Output

   The directing input/output chapter explains how you can use a program
   and send its output to a file or to another command that you wish to
   use. This technique is very powerful and there are a number of ways of
   doing this.
     _________________________________________________________________

6.1. Concept Definitions

   All three of the following definitions are called " File Streams."
   They hold information that is either received from somewhere or sent
   to somewhere. In a UNIX system, the keyboard input (standard input),
   information printed to the screen (standard output) and error output
   (also printed to the screen) are treated as separate File Streams.

   Standard output
          Standard output is the output from the program printed to the
          screen, not including error output (see below).

   Standard input
          Standard input is the input from the user. Normally the
          keyboard is used as the standard input device in a UNIX system.

   Standard error
          Standard error is error output from programs. This output is
          also sent to the screen and will normally be seen mixed in with
          standard output. The difference between standard output and
          standard error is that standard error is unbuffered (it appears
          immediately on the screen) and standard error is only printed
          when something goes wrong (it will give you details of what
          went wrong).
     _________________________________________________________________

6.2. Usage

   >
          The greater than symbol is used to send information somewhere
          (for example a text file)

          Example:

cat file1 file2 > file1_and_2.txt

          This will concatenate the files together into one big file
          named "file1_and_2.txt". Note that this will overwrite any
          existing file.

   <
          The less than symbol will insert information from somewhere (a
          text file) as if you typed it yourself. Often used with
          commands that are designed to get information from standard
          input only.

          For example (using tr):

tr [A-Z] [a-z] < fileName.txt > fileNameNew.txt

          The example above would insert the contents of "fileName.txt"
          into the input of tr and output the results to
          "fileNameNew.txt".

   >>
          The >> symbol appends (adds) information to the end of a file
          or creates one if the file doesn't exist.

   <<
          The << symbol is sometimes used with commands that use standard
          input to take information. You simply type << word (where word
          can be any string) at the end of the command.

          The command takes your input until you type "word", which
          causes the command to terminate and process the input.

          Using << is an alternative to using CTRL-D (EOF key), except it
          uses a string to perform the end-of-file function.

          For example type "cat" (with no options...) and it will work on
          standard input.

          To stop entering standard input you would normally hit CTRL-D .

          As an alternative you can type "cat << FINISHED", then type
          what you want.

          When you are finished, instead of hitting CTRL-D you could type
          "FINISHED" and it will end (the word FINISHED will not be
          recorded).

   2>
          Redirects error output. For example, to redirect the error
          output to /dev/null, so you do not see it, simply append this
          to the end of another command...

          For example:

make some_file 2> /dev/null

          Runs make on a file and send all error output to /dev/null

   |
          The "pipe" command allows the output of one command to be sent
          to the input of another.

          For example:

cat file1.txt file2.txt | less

          Concatenates the files together, then runs less on them. If you
          are only going to look at a single file, you would simply use
          less on the file...

          tee Sends output of a program to a file and to standard output.
          Think of it as a T intersection...it goes two ways.

          For example:

ls /home/user | tee my_directories.txt

          Lists the files (displays the output on the screen) and sends
          the output to a file: "my_directories.txt".

   &>
          Redirects standard output and error output to a specific
          location.

          For example:

make &> /dev/null

          Sends both error output and standard output to /dev/null so you
          won't see anything...
     _________________________________________________________________

6.3. Command Substitution

   Command substitution is basically another way to do a pipe, you can
   use pipes and command substitution interchangeably, it's up to you
   which one you find easier...

   Command substitution can be done in two distinct ways.



   Method One (back-quotes)


          Simply type:

command_1 `command_2 -options`

          This will execute "command_2" and it's output will become the
          input to "command_1".

          Tip Backquote key


   The back-quote key is usually located at the same place as the tilde,
   above the [Tab] key.

   Method Two (dollars sign)


          Simply type:

command_1 $(command_2)

          This will execute "command_2" and it's output will become the
          input to "command_1".

   Using the pipe instead


          You can of course use pipes to do the same thing, if you don't
          know what a pipe is, please see Section 6.2. For example
          instead of doing:

less $cat file1.txt file2.txt

          You could do:

cat file1.txt file2.txt | less

          And end up with exactly the same result, it's up to you which
          way you find easier.
     _________________________________________________________________

6.4. Performing more than one command

   Executing the second command only if the first is successful


          To do this you would type:

command1 && command2

          command2 will be executed if command1 successfully completes
          (if command1 fails command2 won't be run). This is called a
          logical AND.

   Executing the second command only if the first fails


          To do this you would type:

command1 || command2

          command2 will be executed if command1 does not successfully
          completes (if command1 is successful command2 won't be run).
          This is called a logical OR.

   Executing commands sequentially


          To execute command sequentially regardless of the
          success/failure of the previous you simply type:

command1; command2

          command2 will execute once command1 has completed.

          Tip More than two commands


   You can continue to use ';' (semicolon) characters to do more and more
   commands on the one line.
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 7. Working with the file-system

   The working with the file-system chapter explains a number of commands
   that you use to move around the file system hierarchy and manipulate
   the files. Also explained are finding files and how to mass-rename
   files.
     _________________________________________________________________

7.1. Moving around the filesystem

          cd Change directory. Use " cd .." to go up one directory.

          One dot '.' represents the current directory while two dots
          '..' represent the parent directory.

          " cd -" will return you to the previous directory (a bit like
          an "undo").

          You can also use cd absolute path or cd relative path (see
          below):

        Absolute
                paths An " absolute path" is easily recognised from the
                leading /. The / means that you start at the top level
                directory and continue down.

          For Example to get to /boot/grub you would type:

cd /boot/grub

          This is an absolute path because you start at the top of the
          hierarchy and go downwards from there (it doesn't matter where
          in the filesystem you were when you typed the command).

        Relative
                paths A " relative path" doesn't have a preceding slash.
                Use a relative path when you start from a directory below
                the top level directory structure. This is dependent on
                where you are in the filesystem.

                For example if you are in root's home directory and want
                to get to /root/music, you type:

cd music

          Please note that there is no / using the above cd command.
          Using a / would cause this to be an absolute path, working from
          the top of the hierarchy downward.

          ls List files and directories. Typing "ls" will list files and
          directories, but will not list hidden files or directories that
          start with a leading '.'.

          Example options:

          + ls -l --- long style, this lists permissions, file size,
            modification date, ownership.
          + ls -a --- this means "show all", this shows hidden files, by
            default any file or directory starting with a '.' will not be
            shown.
          + ls -d --- list directories only (see example below)
          + ls -F --- append symbols to particular files, such as *
            (asterisk) for executable files.
          + ls -S --- sort the output of the command in decending order
            sorted by size.
          + ls -R --- (recursive) to list everything in the directories
            below as well as the current directory.

          Command syntax, either:

ls -options

          This simply lists everything in the current directory, the
          options are not required (options such as -l, -a et cetera).

ls -options string

          This lists files using a certain string. The string can contain
          standard wildcards to list multiple files, to learn more about
          standard wildcards please read Section 20.4.1

          You can use ls -d to show directories that match an exact
          string, or use standard wildcards. Type " ls -d */" to list all
          subdirectories of the current directory. Depending on the setup
          of your aliases (see Chapter 4) you may simply be able to type
          lsd as the equivalent to ls -d */.

          Examples for ls -d:

ls -d */

          Lists all subdirectories of current directory.

ls -d string*

          Lists directories that start with "string".

ls -d /usr/*/*/doc

          Lists all directories that are two levels below the /usr/
          directory and have a directory called "doc", this trick can
          come in quite handy sometimes.

          Tip You can also use


   Depending on how your aliases (see Chapter 4) are setup you can also
   use l, la (list all) and ll (list long) to perform the above commands

          pwd Print working directory. Print the absolute (complete) path
          to the directory the user is currently in.

          Command syntax:

pwd

          This will tell you the full path to what directory you are in,
          for example it may output "/usr/local/bin" if you are currently
          in that directory.

   tree
          Outputs an ASCII text tree graph starting at a given directory
          (by default the current directory). This command recursively
          lists all files and all directories.

          In other words, it will list files within the directories below
          the current one, as well as all files in the current directory.

          tree has a large number of options, refer to the manual page
          for details.

          Command syntax:

tree

          or

tree -option(s) /optional/directory/to/list
     _________________________________________________________________

7.1.1. Finding files

          find find is a tool which looks for files on a filesystem. find
          has a large number of options which can be used to customise
          the search (refer to the manual/info pages).

          Note that find works with standard wildcards, Section 20.4.1,
          and can work with regular expressions, Section 20.4.2.

          Basic example:

finsd / -name file

          This would look for a file named "file" and start at the root
          directory (it will search all directories including those that
          are mounted filesystems).

          The `-name' option is case sensitive you can use the `-iname'
          option to find something regardless of case.

          Use the '-regex' and '-iregex' to find something according to a
          regular expression (either case sensitive or case insensitive
          respectively).

          The '-exec' option is one of the more advanced find operations.
          It executes a command on the files it finds (such as moving or
          removing it or anything else...).

          To use the -exec option: use find to find something, then add
          the -exec option to the end, then:

command_to_be_executed  (1)   then '{}' (curly brackets)  (2)  then the argumen
ts (for example a new directory)  and finally a ';'  (3) .

          See below for an example of use this command.

        (1) 
               This is the tool you want to execute on the files find
               locates. For example if you wanted to remove everything it
               finds then you would use -exec rm -f
        (2) 
               The curly brackets are used in find to represent the
               current file which has been found. ie. If it found the
               file shopping.doc then {} would be substituted with
               shopping.doc. It would then continue to substitute {} for
               each file it finds. The brackets are normally protected by
               backslashes (\) or single-quotation marks ('), to stop
               bash expanding them (trying to interpret them as a special
               command eg. a wildcard).
        (3) 
               This is the symbol used by find to signal the end of the
               commands. It's usually protected by a backslash (\) or
               quotes to stop bash from trying to expand it.

find / -name '*.doc' -exec cp '{}' /tmp/ ';'

          The above command would find any files with the extension
          '.doc' and copy them to your /tmp directory, obviously this
          command is quite useless, it's just an example of what find can
          do. Note that the quotation marks are there to stop bash from
          trying to interpret the other characters as something.

          Excluding particular folders with find can be quite confusing,
          but it may be necessary if you want to search your main disk
          (without searching every mounted filesystem). Use the -path
          option to exclude the particular folder (note cannot have a '/'
          (forward slash) on the end) and the -prune option to exclude
          the subdirectories. An example is below:

find / -path '/mnt/win_c' -prune -o -name "string" -print

          This example will search your entire directory tree (everything
          that is mounted under it) excluding /mnt/win_c and all of the
          subdirectories under /mnt/win_c. When using the -path option
          you can use wildcards.

          Note that you could add more -path '/directory' statements on
          if you wanted.

          Find has many, many different options, refer to the manual (and
          info) page for more details.

          slocate slocate outputs a list of all files on the system that
          match the pattern, giving their full path name (it doesn't have
          to be an exact match, anything which contains the word is
          shown).

          Note Replaces locate


   Secure locate is a replacement for locate, both have identical syntax.
   On most distributions locate is an alias to slocate.

          Commmand syntax:

slocate string

          Note This won't work unless


   You need to run either updatedb (as root) or slocate -u (as root) for
   slocate to work.

   whereis
          whereis locates where the binary, source, and manual page is
          for a particular program, it uses exact matches only, if you
          only know part of the name use slocate.

          Command syntax:

whereis program_name

          which Virtually the same as whereis, except it only finds the
          executable (the physical program). It only looks in the PATH
          (environment variable) of a users shell.

          Use the -a option to list all occurances of the particular
          program_name in your path (so if theres more than one you can
          see it).

          Command syntax:

which program_name
     _________________________________________________________________

7.2. Working with files and folders

          mkdir Make a directory. Use mkdir -p to create subdirectories
          automatically.

          Note Directories are Folders


   Directories are sometimes called folders in other operating systems
   (such as Microsoft Windows)

          Examples:

mkdir -p /home/matt/work/maths

          This would create the directories "work" and "maths" under
          matt's home directory (if matt's home directory didn't exist it
          would create that too).

mkdir foo

          This would create a directory in the current path named "foo".

          rm Remove/delete a file(s) or directories(s). You can use
          standard wildcards with this command Section 20.4.1.

          Command syntax:

rm -options file_or_folder

          You can of course use standard wildcards to delete multiple
          files or multiple directories and files.

          Use the -R or -r option to remove recursively, this removes
          everything within subdirectories. Also try the -f option to
          force removal (useful when you don't want to be prompted).

          To remove files with special characters, for example, "da*d"
          type:

rm -- da*d

          After the "--" it uses everything literally instead of using
          them as standard wildcards. This may be useful when you need to
          delete a filename containing weird symbols (this also works on
          other tools...).

          Tip Disabling Aliases (per execution)


   On some systems such as Mandrake an alias will send rm to rm -i
   (prompting you for every file you wish to delete). To override this
   use: \rm -R directory (using the \ disables the alias for this run
   only)

          rmdir Remove an empty directory. If you want to remove a
          directory with files in it type " rm -R directory", read above
          for information on rm -R

          Command syntax:

rmdir directory

          This will only remove directory if it's empty otherwise it will
          exit with an error message.

          mv Move a file or a directory to a new location or rename a
          file/directory.

          Rename example:

mv filename1 filename2

          Renames filename1 to filename2.

          To move a file or directory, simply type:

mv original_file_or_folder new_location

          Note that this command can use standard wildcards Section
          20.4.1 to move files (not for renaming).

   Tip Move and rename


   Note that you can also move and rename a file in a single command. The
   difference is with the destination (right hand side) you change the
   filename to the new name of the file.
   For example typing:
mv /etc/configuration.txt /home/joe/backupconfig

   This would move the file "configuration.txt" to /home/joe/ and rename
   it "backupconfig"

          cp Copy a file. Has a number of useful options, such as -R (or
          -r) which recursively copies directories and subdirectories.

          Command syntax:

cp -options file_or_files new_location

          Examples:

cp file1 file2

          Simply copy file1 to file2 (in the same directory).

cp /tmp/file1 ~/file2 /mnt/win_c

          Where the last option is the directory to be copy to. Copies
          two files from different areas of the hard disk to /mnt/win_c

cp -R directory_and_or_files new_location

          This command will copy directories (and all subdirectories)
          and/or files to new_location

          Note that this command can use standard wildcards Section
          20.4.1 to copy multiple files.

          You may also like to try the "-u" when moving large directories
          around, this copies only if the source file is newer than the
          destination to where you are copying to, or if the destination
          file does not exist at all.

          ln Create a link to a file. There are two types of links:

        Hard links
                Hard links are considered pointers to a file (the number
                is listed by typing ls -l). Each hard-link is a reference
                to a file.

                The file itself only goes away when all hard-links are
                deleted. If you delete the original file and there are
                hard links to it the original file will remain.

                Example:

ln target_name link_name

                Will create a "hard link" to target_name called
                link_name, you need to delete both of these to remove the
                file.

        Symbolic links
                Symbolic links are created by typing " ln -s". When you
                remove the original file the symbolic link becomes
                broken, a symbolic link is similar to a windows
                "short-cut".

                The advantage of symbolic links is that they can be to
                something on another file-system, while hard-links can
                only exist on the same file-system.

                For example:

ln -s target_name link_name

                This creates a symbolic link to "target_name" called
                "link_name", if you delete the original file the symbolic
                link won't work (it becomes a broken link).

          shred Securely remove a file by overwriting it first. Prevents
          the data from being recovered by software (and even by most
          hardware), please be very careful when using shred as you may
          never be able to retrieve the data you have run the application
          on.

          For example:

shred -n 2 -z -v /dev/hda1

     What this tells shred, is to overwrite the partition 2 times with
     random data (- n 2) then finish it up by writing over it with
     zeroes (-z) and show you its prog ress (-v). Of course, change
     /dev/hda1 to whatever your partition is. Each pass can take some
     time, which is why I set it to only do 2 random passes instead of
     the default 25. You can adjust this number, of course, to your
     particular level of paranoia and the amount of time you have.
     Since shred writes on such a low-level, it doesn't actually matter
     what kind of filesystem is on the partition--everything will be
     unrecoverable. Once shred is finished, you can shut down the
     machine and sell or throw away the drive with peace of mind.
     ...However, even shre dding devices is not always completely
     reliable. For example, most disks map out bad sectors invisibly to
     the application; if the bad sectors contain sensitiv e data,
     `shred' won't be able to destroy it. [ shred info page ].[2]

          Note Shredding files doesn't work with all filesystems


   Please note that as mentioned in the shred manual page (please see the
   manual and preferably info pages for more information). shred does not
   work correctly on log-structured or journaled filesystems, such as
   JFS, ReiserFS, XFS, Ext3 and many other modern filesystems

          Tip Alternatives to using shred


   shred has its disadvantages when run on a filesystem. First of all
   since it has to be installed you cannot run shred on your operating
   systems filesystem, you also cannot use shred on a windows machine
   easily since you cannot install shred on this machine.
   You may like to try alternatives such as the DBAN project that create
   self-booting floppy disks that can completely erase a machines hard
   disk.

          You may also like to see how chattr can assist you in shredding
          files once they are removed (it has similar problems to shred,
          only ext2 and ext3 style filesystems...), please see Section
          14.2.

          du Displays information about file size. Use du filename to
          display the size of a particular file. If you use it on
          directories it will display the information on the size of the
          files in the directory and each subdirectory.

          Options for du (use du -option(s)):

          + -c -- this will make du print a grand total after all
            arguments have being processed.
          + -s -- summarises for each argument (prints the total).
          + -h -- prints things in " human readable" mode; for example
            printing 1M (megabyte) rather than 1,024,000 (bytes).

          Using the -hs options on a directory will display the total
          size of the directory and all subdirectories.

          Command syntax:

du -options file_directory_or_files

          Example:

du -hs *

          This command will list the size of all files in the current
          directory and it will list the size of subdirectories, it will
          list things in human-readable sizes using 1024 Kb is a
          Megabyte, M for megabyte, K for kilobyte etc.

   file
          Attempts to find out what type of file it is, for example it
          may say it's: binary, an image file (well it will say jpeg, bmp
          et cetera), ASCII text, C header file and many other kinds of
          files, it's a very useful utility.

          Command syntax:

file file_name

   stat
          Tells you detailed information about a file, including inode
          number creation/access date. Also has many advanced options and
          uses.

          For simple use type:

stat file

          dd Copies data on a very low level and can be used to create
          copies of disks Section 20.3 and many other things (for example
          CD image files).

          dd can also perform conversions on files and vary the block
          size used when writing the file.

          Command syntax, note the block size and count are optional and
          you can use files instead of devices...

          Note Please note


   dd is an advanced and difficult to use command. Its also very
   powerful, so be careful what you do with it

          Command syntax:

dd if=/dev/xxx of=/dev/xxx bs=xxxx count=x

          Warning Warning


   The command dd is used to work on a very low level. It can be used to
   overwrite important information such as your master-boot record or
   various important sections of your hard-disk. Please be careful when
   using it (especially when working with devices instead of files).

          touch This command is used to create empty files, simply do
          touch file_name. It is also used to update the timestamps on
          files.

          touch can be used to change the time and/or date of a file:

touch -t 05070915 my_report.txt[3]

          This command would change the time stamp on my_report.txt so
          that it would look like you created it at 9:15. The first four
          digits stand for May 7th (0507), in MM-DD (American style), and
          the last four (0915) the time, 9:15 in the morning.

          Instead of using plain numbers to change the time, you can use
          options similar to that of the date tool. For example:

touch -d '5 May 2000' some_file.txt

          You can also use --date= instead of -d. Also have a look at the
          date command under Section 8.1 for examples on using -d and
          --date= (the syntax for the date part is exactly the same when
          using -d or --date).

          split Splits files into several smaller files.

          Use the -b xx option to split into xx bytes, also try -k for
          kilobytes, and -m for megabytes. You can use it to split text
          files and any other files... you can use cat to re-combine the
          files.

          This may be useful if you have to transfer something to floppy
          disks or you wish to divide text files into certain sizes.

          Command syntax:

split -options file

          This will split the input file into 1000 lines of input each
          (thats the default...), and output (using the above example),
          with the input name file, "fileaa" (1st part of file), "fileab"
          (2nd part of file), "fileac" (3rd part of file) etc. until the
          there is no more of the file left to split.
     _________________________________________________________________

7.3. Mass Rename/copy/link Tools

   There are a few different ways to perform mass renaming of files in
   GNU/Linux (yes, mass renaming is possible!). There is also a perl
   script that renames the extentions on files, see Chapter 19.

   Below are three ways to perform mass renaming of files, using the
   commands mmv, rename (a perl script) or some bash shell scripting.



          mmv mmv is a mass move/copy/renaming tool that uses standard
          wildcards to perform its functions.

          mmv's manual page is quite difficult to understand, I have only
          a limited understandi ng of this tool. However mmv supports
          some standard wildcards.

          According to the manual the ';' wildcard is useful for matching
          files at any depth in the directory tree (ie it will go below
          the current directory, recursively).

          An example of how to use mmv is shown below:

mmv \*.JPG \#1.jpg

          The first pattern matches anything with a ".JPG" and renames
          each file (the "#1" matches the first wildcard) to ".jpg".

          Each time you use a \(wildcard) you can use a #x to get that
          wildcard. Where x is a positive number starting at 1.

          Tip mmv Homepage


   You can find mmv on the web here.
   Also be aware that certain options used with mmv are also applicable
   to other tools in the suite, these include mcp (mass copy), mad (mass
   append contents of source file to target name), mln (mass link to a
   source file).

          Tip Tip:


   A Java alternative to mmv which runs on both GNU/Linux and Windows is
   available, Esomaniac

          rename rename is a perl script which can be used to mass rename
          files according to a regular expression.

          An example for renaming all ".JPG" files to ".jpg" is:

rename 's/\.JPG$/.jpg/' *.JPG

          Note Finding rename


   You can get rename from various places. I would recommend trying CPAN
   Search Site, I found the script here Rename Script Version 1.4

   Bash
          scripting Bash scripting is one way to rename files. You can
          develop a set of instructions (a script) to rename files.
          Scripts are useful if you don't have mmv or rename...

          One way to this is shown below:

for i in *.JPG;
do mv $i `basename $i JPG`jpg;
done

          Note that the above came script came from a usenet post.
          Unfortunately I do not know the author's name.

          The first line says find everything with the ".JPG" extension
          (capitals only, because unix is case sensitive).

          The second line uses basename (type man basename for more
          details) with the '$i' argument. The '$i' is a string
          containing the name of the file that matches. The next portion
          of the line removes the JPG extension from the end and adds the
          jpg extention to each file. The command mv is run on the
          output.

          An alternative is:

for i in *.JPG;
do mv $i ${i%%.JPG}.jpg;
done

          The above script renames files using a built-in bash function.
          For more information on bash scripting you may like to see the
          advanced bash scripting guide, authored by Mendel Cooper.
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 8. Finding information about the system

   time
          If you are looking for how to change the time please refer to
          date here: Section 8.1.

          time is a utility to measure the amount of time it takes a
          program to execute. It also measures CPU usage and displays
          statistics.

          Use time -v (verbose mode) to display even more detailed
          statistics about the particular program.

          Example usage:

time program_name options

   /proc
          The files under the /proc (process information pseudo
          file-system) show various information about the system.
          Consider it a window to the information that the kernel uses.

          For example:

cat /proc/cpuinfo

          Displays information about the CPU.

less /proc/modules 

          To view information on what kernel-modules are loaded on your
          system.

   dmesg
          dmesg can be used to print (or control) the " kernel ring
          buffer". dmesg is generally used to print the contents of your
          bootup messages displayed by the kernel. This is often useful
          when debugging problems.

          Simply type:

dmesg

          df Displays information about the space on mounted
          file-systems. Use the .h option to have df list the space in a
          'human readable' format. ie. if there are 1024 kilobytes left
          (approximately) then df will say there is 1MB left.

          Command syntax:

df -options /dev/hdx

          The latter part is optional, you can simply use df with or
          without options to list space on all file-systems.

          who Displays information on which users are logged into the
          system including the time they logged in.

          Command syntax:

who

          w Displays information on who is logged into the system and
          what they are doing (ie. the processes they are running). It's
          similar to who but displays slightly different information.

          Command syntax:

w

   users
          Very similar to who except it only prints out the user names
          who are currently logged in. (Doesn't need or take any
          options).

          Command syntax:

users

          last Displays records of when various users have logged in or
          out. This includes information on when the computer was
          rebooted.

          To execute this simply type:

last

          lastlog Displays a list of users and what day/time they logged
          into the system.

          Simply type:

lastlog

          whoami Tells the user who they are currently logged in as.
          Doesn't need or take any options.

          Simply type:

whoami

          free Displays memory statistics (total, free, used, cached,
          swap). Use the -t option to display totals of everything and
          use the -m to display memory in megabytes.

          Example:

free -tm

          This will display the memory usage including totals in
          megabytes.

          uptime Print how long the computer has been "up", how long the
          computer has been running. It also displays the number of users
          and the processor load (how hard the CPU has been worked...).

          Note: the w command displays uptime's output as the top line of
          its output when it is executed (ie. you could use w
          instead...).

   uname
          uname is used to print information on the system such as OS
          type, kernel version et cetera.

          Some uname options:

          + -a --- print all the available information
          + -m --- print only information related to the machine itself.
          + -n --- print only the machine hostname.
          + -r --- print the release number of the current kernel.
          + -s --- print the operating system name
          + -p --- print the processor type.

          Command syntax:

uname -options

          xargs Note that xargs is an advanced, confusing, yet powerful
          command. xargs is a command used to run other commands as many
          times as necessary, this way it prevents any kind of
          overload... When you run a command then | xargs command2. The
          results of command1 will be passed to command2.

          Understanding xargs tends to be very difficult and my
          explanation is not the best. Refer to the examples below or try
          [6] of the Bibliography for another xargs tutorial.

          Note Alternatives to using xargs


   Please note that the below explanation of xargs is not the strongest
   (at the time of writing I could not find anything better :()).
   Alternatives may include writing a simple bash script to do the job
   which is not the most difficult task in the world.

          Examples:

ls | xargs grep work

          The first command is obvious, it will list the files in the
          current directory. For each line of output of ls, xargs will
          run grep on that particular line and look for the string
          "work". The output have the each time grep is executed on a new
          line, the output would look like:

file_name: results_of_grep

          If grep didn't find the word then there would be no output if
          it had an error then it will output the error. Obviously this
          isn't very useful (you could just do grep *, its just an
          example...

          xargs also takes various options:

          + -nx --- will group the first x commands together
          + -lx --- xargs will execute the command for every x number of
            lines of input
          + -p --- prompt whether or not to execute this particular
            string
          + -t --- (tell) be verbose, echo each command before performing
            it
          + -i --- will use substitution similar to find's -exec option,
            it will execute certain commands on something.

          Example:

ls dir1 | xargs -i mv dir1/'{}' dir2/'{}'

          The {} would be substituted for the current input (in this
          example the current file/directory) listed within the
          directory. The above command would move every file listed in
          dir1 to dir2. Obviously this command won't be too useful, it
          would be easier to go to dir1 and type mv * ../dir2

          Here is a more useful example:

\ls *.wav | xargs -i lame -h '{}' '{}'.mp3

          This would find all wave files within the current directory and
          convert them to mp3 files (encoded with lame) and append a .mp3
          to the end of the file, unfortunately it doesn't remove the
          .wav and so its not too useful...but it works.
     _________________________________________________________________

8.1. Date/Time/Calendars

   There is one command to change both the date and time on a UNIX like
   system, date, there is also a simple calendar utility, cal. If you are
   looking to change the time-stamps on files please see Chapter 8

   date
          Tells you the date (and the time) and is also used to set the
          date/time.

          To set the date, type date MM:DD:YYYY (American style date)
          where MM is month, DD is the number of days within the month
          and YYYY is the year.

          For example to set the date to the 1st January 2000 you would
          type:

date 01:01:2000

          To set the time (where the -s option is to set a new time),
          type:

date -s hh:mm:ss

          Another useful option you can use is --date="string" (or -d
          "string") option to display a date from x days ago or in x days
          (or x weeks, months, years et cetera). See the examples below.

          Examples:

date --date="3 months 1 day ago"

          Will print the date 3 months and 1 day ago from the current
          date. Note that --date="x month x day ago" and -d "x month x
          day ago" are equivalent.

date -d "3 days"

          The above command will print the date 3 days forward in time
          from now.

          cal Typing cal will give you the calendar of the present month
          on your screen, in the nice standard calendar format. There are
          various options to customise the calendar, refer to the
          info/man page.

          Example:

cal -y year

          Will display a calendar for a specific year, simply use cal -y
          to print the calendar for the current year.

cal 2 2004

          This will display the calendar for February 2004
     _________________________________________________________________

8.2. Finding information about partitions

   There are a number of ways to find out information on your hard disk
   drives, for information on mounted partitions also try df in Chapter 8

   Using the proc
          filesystem You can look through the information in the relevant
          area of the proc filesystem, under the directory of either
          /proc/ide/ or /proc/ide?/hd? where the first question mark is a
          number and the second is a letter (starting with 'a').

          For example:

cd /proc/ide0/hda

          Under this directory there will be various information on the
          hard drive or cdrom connected.

   Using fdisk
          Using fdisk with the -l option will output information on any
          hard drives connected to the system and information on their
          partitions (for example, the type of partition).

          Information relating to using fdisk to partition hard disks can
          be found in your distributions documentation, the fdisk manual
          page or online.

          Note Root Access Required


   This command needs root access to work
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 9. Controlling the system

   The controlling the system chapter details commands that you may wish
   to use to interact with devices on your system and then details how to
   control processes and services/daemons.

   eject
          eject simply tells a device to open (eject). Useful for
          cdrom/DVD drives.

          For example the command below would eject the cdrom-drive (if
          your cdrom is linked to /dev/cdrom):

eject /dev/cdrom

          Note This won't work unless


   This will only work if the user has permission to mount the partition.
   Please see the tip in Section 9.1 for more information.
     _________________________________________________________________

9.1. Mounting and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions)

   Tip Allowing Users to mount partitions


   By default a UNIX system will allow normal users to unmount
   partitions. However unless given permission by the super-user, users
   will not be allowed to mount partitions.

   The commands listed below will not work for normal users unless users
   have permission to mount that device.

   If your particular distribution is setup not to allow users to mount
   partitions its not very hard to change this, simply edit the
   /etc/fstab file (as root) and:
   Replace the word "defaults" with "user" or

   Add "user" to the end of the options list for the particular partition(s).

          mount Mount a device. Attach the device to the file-system
          hierarchy (the tree ( / )). This needs to be done so you can
          access the drive (see below, Section 9.1 for an example).

          umount 'Unmount' a device. The command umount (no 'n')
          unmount's a device. It removes it from the file-system
          hierarchy (the tree ( / )). This needs to be done before you
          remove a floppy/CDROM or any other removable device (see below,
          Section 9.1 for an example).

   smbmount //wincomp/c /mnt/win
          Where "win" would be the place you want it mounted and
          "wincomp" is the IP address or name (the name will only work if
          it's listed in /etc/hosts) of your windows computer. smbmount
          is a tool from the samba package, it can mount a remote windows
          file system onto your current computer.

          Un-mounting uses the same syntax as 'umount', as listed above,
          or you may like to use:

smbumont /mountpoint

          Examples of how to mount a file-system:

mount -t ext2 /dev/fd0 /mnt/floppy  (1)
mount -t iso9660 /dev/hdb /mnt/cdrom  (2)
mount -t iso /tmp/image_file /mnt/iso_file/ -o loop  (3)

        (1) 
               The windows filesystem is known as vfat (standard on
               Windows 9x) or NFTS (standard on Windows 2000 and XP).
        (2) 
               for CDROM's
        (3) 
               This will mount an image file (usually a CD image file) so
               you can view/change the files (it will appear to be like
               any other device).

          Note The -t option


   On any system running a newer version of the Linux kernel the -t
   option is not always necessary and can be left out.

          Examples of how to unmount a file-system (necessary before you
          eject/remove disk):

umount /mount_point

          An example unmount point could be "/mnt/floppy" or "/mnt/cdrom"
     _________________________________________________________________

9.2. Shutting Down/Rebooting the System

   shutdown now
          Shutdown the computer immediately (don't power down). Note that
          in UNIX systems this kind of shutdown means to go to "
          single-user mode". Single user mode is a mode where only the
          administrator (root) has access to the computer, this mode is
          designed for maintenance and is often used for repairs.

          For example this would take you to single user mode

shutdown now

   shutdown -h now
          Shutdown (-h = halt) the computer immediately. It begins the
          shutdown procedure, press CTRL-C (break-key) to stop it. After
          the end of the command you can also leave a message in
          quotation marks which will be broad-casted to all users, for
          example:

shutdown -h now "Warning system malfunction, self-destruct imminent"

          This would halt the system and send the message to anyone who
          was logged in.

          Note you can put a time instead of "now" or "+x minutes" (any
          number of minutes is appropriate) or you can set an exact time.
          For example to shutdown at 11:50 type:

shutdown -h 11:50

          Note Shutdown -h vs poweroff


   On some systems, shutdown -h and halt do not actually poweroff the
   system. On systems that do not power off with these commands use the
   poweroff command

          halt Same as above, doesn't take any options, just shuts down
          immediately.

   shutdown -r now
          Shutdown ( -r = reboot) the computer immediately. It begins the
          reboot procedure, press CTRL-C (break-key) to stop it. After
          the end of the command you can also leave a message in
          quotation marks which will be broad-casted to all users, for
          example:

shutdown -r now "Warning system rebooting, all files will be destroyed"

          This would reboot the system and send the message to anyone who
          was logged in.

          Note you can put a time instead of "now" or "+x minutes" (any
          number of minutes is appropriate) or you can set an exact time.
          For example to reboot at 11:50 type:

shutdown -r 11:50

          reboot Same as above, doesn't take any options, reboots
          immediately.

   CTRL-ALT-DEL
          (key-combination) May be used from a terminal to reboot or
          shutdown, it depends on your system configuration. Note that
          this doesn't work from an xterminal. CTRL-ALT-DEL begins the
          reboot/shutdown immediately, the user does not have to be
          logged in.

   Tip You can change the behaviour of CTRL-ALT-DEL from rebooting


   To disable CTRL-ALT-DEL from rebooting your computer (or to have it do
   something different), you can edit the /etc/inittab file (as root).
   Here is how it looks on a Mandrake/Mandriva Linux system:
# Trap
CTRL-ALT-DEL


ca::ctrlaltdel:/sbin/shutdown -t3 -r now

   Note that the # means a comment (and is not used). If you simply put a
   # (hash) before the command it would disable it (it would become a
   comment).
   You could also change the command it runs for example if you changed
   the -r to a -h the computer would turn off instead of rebooting, or
   you could have it do anything you want. It's up to your creativity to
   make it do something interesting.
     _________________________________________________________________

9.3. Controlling Processes

          ps Will give you a list of the processes running on your
          system. With no options, ps will list processes that belong to
          the current user and have a controlling terminal.

          Example options include:

          + -aux --- list all running processes (by all users with some
            information).
          + -a --- list all processes from all users.
          + -u --- list more information including user names, %cpu
            usage, and %mem usage et cetera.
          + -x --- list processes without controlling terminals.
          + -l --- display different information including UID and nice
            value.
          + --forest --- this makes it easier to see the process
            hierarchy, which will give you an indication of how the
            various processes on your system interrelate (although you
            should also try pstree).

          For example to list all running processes with additional
          information, simply type:

ps -aux

          pstree Displays the processes in the form of a tree structure
          (similar to how tree does it for directories).

          Use the -p option to show process id's.

          Example:

pstree -p

          This would list all processes and their ids.

          pgrep This command is useful for finding the process id of a
          particular process when you know part of its name.

          Use the -l option to list the name of the process as well and
          the -u option to search via a particular user(s).

          Normally pgrep will only return the pid number; this way you
          can use it with other commands.

          Examples:

kill $(pgrep mozilla)

          This would kill any process name that starts with mozilla. Note
          that this is the same as using pkill (see below).

          If you are unfamiliar with the $( ) part of this command,
          please refer to Section 6.4.

          To list processes id's and names type:

pgrep -l process_name

          top Displays the 'top' (as in CPU usage) processes, provides
          more detail than ps.

          top also provides an updated display, it has many option that
          make it fully customisable, refer to the manual or info page
          for details.

   kill
          To kill processes on your system, you will need their pid's or
          id's . Use ps or pstree to find out the process id's (pids), or
          use jobs to find out id's.

          Tip killall and pkill - kill a process by name


   pkill and killall can be a lot easier to use than kill. pkill allows
   you to type part of the name of a process to kill it, while killall
   requires the full process name. See below for more information.

          Examples:

kill pid

          Simply kill a process (allow it time to save it's files and
          exit)

kill %id

          Same as above, except it uses an id instead of a pid, you need
          to use a % (percent) when using an id to kill.

kill -kill pid

          Force a process to be killed (won't allow files to be saved or
          updated); only use when necessary because all data that the
          program had will be lost.

          There are also many other kill options such as kill -HUP
          (hangup)... refer to the manual/info pages for more
          information.

          killall Kill a process by it's name, uses names instead of
          process id's (pids). Use -v to have killall report whether the
          kill was successful or not and -i for interactive mode (will
          prompt you before attempting to kill).

          Tip pkill - a little like a killall with regular expressions


   pkill is another command that allows processes to be killed but does
   so using regular expressions. See below for more information.

          For example:

killall -iv mozilla

          Would kill anything named "mozilla" and prompt you before each
          kill and report whether the kill was successful or not.
          Unfortunately you need to get the name exactly right for
          killall to work, you would need to use "mozilla-bin" to kill
          the mozilla browser. If you want something where you don't need
          to know the exact name try pkill (below).

          pkill pkill is used to kill processes according to an extended
          regular expression. Use the -u option to kill using a user
          name(s) and process name (for example to only kill a process of
          a certain user). pkill can also send specific signals to
          processes.

          For normal usage simply type:

pkill process_name

          Note that the "process_name" doesn't have to be an exact
          match...

          Or to kill the "process_name" of only the users "fred" and
          "anon" type:

pkill -u fred anon process_name

   skill
          skill is used to send a command/username/tty a particular
          signal.

          skill has a number of options available to ensure correct
          interpretation (otherwise it just guesses what it is), simply
          type skill -option(s)

          + -L --- list the various signals that can be sent
          + -u --- specify a username; this is obviously followed by the
            user name or a space-seperated list of usernames.
          + -p --- process id (followed by the process id)
          + -c --- command name (this is the same as killall)
          + -t --- (tty number)
          + -v --- verbose mode
          + -i --- interactive mode.

          skill can be used to stop, continue, or kill processes using
          the username, command name or process id (or send them any
          variety of signals you like).

          Useful example:

skill -STOP abusive_user_name

          The above command will stop all of that users processes, this
          will cause his screen to freeze until you type:

skill -CONT abusive_user_name

          This would tell that all processes may continue as before. Note
          that this would only work if you are root. Also note you can
          list more than one user name with the command so it will apply
          to multiple users.

   CTRL-C
          The break key, will kill (break, stop) something that's running
          on your terminal.

          jobs Prints currently running jobs, as in processes you have
          executed within the shell.

          bg Backgrounds a process. To start a program in the background
          (so it doesn't take over the terminal) use an "&" (ampersand)
          sign at the end of the command. You usually use CTRL-Z to
          suspend something you are currently using. You can simply use
          bg to resume in the background the last job suspended...

          Command syntax:

bg job_number

          or

bg job_name

          fg Bring a process to the foreground, so you can interact with
          it. The process will use your current terminal. Note simply use
          fg to foreground the last job number suspended...

          You can bring jobs to the foreground by name or by number (use
          jobs to find the number).

          Command syntax:

fg job_number

          or

fg job_name

          nice Sets the priority for a process. nice -20 is the maximum
          priority (only administrative users can assign negative
          priorities), nice 20 is the minimum priority. You must be root
          to give a process a higher priority, but you can always lower
          the priority of your own processes...

          Example:

nice -20 make

          Would execute make and it would run at maximum priority.

          renice Changes the priority of an existing command. You may use
          the options -u to change the priorities of all processes for a
          particular user name and -g to change priorities for all
          processes of a particular group. The default is to change via
          the process id number.

          Example:

renice +20 2222

          This would change the priority of process 2222 to +20 (minimum
          priority).

          snice snice works very similarly to skill, only it changes the
          priority of the process(es). Its function is similar to that of
          renice.

          To use options (to ensure correct interpretation) you simply
          type snice -option(s):

          + -u --- specify a username; this is obviously followed by the
            user name or a space-seperated list of usernames.
          + -p --- process id (followed by the process id)
          + -c --- command name (this is the same as killall)
          + -t --- (tty number)
          + -v --- verbose mode
          + -i --- interactive mode.

          Example:

snice -10 -u root

          This would increase the priority of all root's processes.
     _________________________________________________________________

9.4. Controlling services

   Concept Definitions


          UNIX systems use scripts to control "daemons" which provide
          "services" (for example your sound output) to run a UNIX
          system. UNIX systems consist of a variety of services
          (daemons).

          A "daemon" is a system process which runs in the background
          (zero interaction) performing a particular task.

          Daemons normally have a "d" on the end of their name and either
          listen for certain events or perform a system task, for example
          sshd listens for secure shell requests to the particular
          machine and handles them when they occur.

          Daemons usually perform critical system tasks such as control
          swap-space, memory management and various other tasks.

          service service is a shell script available on
          Mandrake/Mandriva and Redhat systems which allows you to
          perform various tasks on services.

          + Use the -s option to print the status of all services
            available
          + Use the -f option followed by a service name to restart that
            particular service.
          + Use the -R option to restart all services (note that this
            will kill any current services running, including X).

          For example to restart the daemon sshd you would type:

service -f sshd

   Using the script directly
          You may also execute the shell script directly from
          /etc/init.d. Simply go to that directory then type
          ./script_name.

          Executing the script should return the options it can take, by
          default they will be:

          + restart --- this will make the service stop and then start
            again.
          + start --- this option will start a service (assuming its not
            running).
          + stop --- this option will stop a service (assuming its
            running).
          + status --- this option will tell you about the service
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 10. Managing users

   su
          username (Switch User), change to a different user.

          Use su - to switch to root or su username, to switch to a
          different username.

   Tip Using sudo


   Its often considered better practice to use the sudo command rather
   than switch to the root user
   The sudo command allows you to perform actions as root but logs the
   actions you take (so you can trace anything that was done to the
   system by yourself or others). sudo has a very good manual page which
   provides plenty of information about it.
   You use sudo similar to how you execute a normal command with sudo
   prepended to it, for example:
 sudo rpm -U myrpm.i386.rpm

   This would allow you to install a rpm even if you have the correct
   sudo access

          Note that if you want to return to your original user you don't
          use su again, type exit or press CTRL-D .

          Simply typing su will give you some root privileges, but there
          are minor complications relating to environment variables. It's
          generally considered better practice to use su - because it has
          no restrictions.

          root The superuser. This user has power over everything and
          all, and can do anything with the system (including destroy it,
          and of course fix it :)). This user is used to perform most
          administration functions on the system.
     _________________________________________________________________

10.1. Users/Groups

   All user information is normally listed in the "/etc/passwd" file and
   the group information in the "/etc/groups" file.

   If you need to edit either file it is recommended that you use vipw to
   edit the password file and vigr to edit the group file. These
   particular commands take care of any processing and locking of the
   files before and after editing them.

   There is a lot of information about adding/removing/controlling users
   and groups, this information is only the minimal information required.

          chsh Used to change your login shell.

          To list the shells available type:

chsh --list-shells

          Simply type chsh then [Enter], then type the name of the shell
          you would like to use every time you login.

          chfn Change finger information.

          The information this command changes is reflected in the
          /etc/passwd file, use this utility to update your real name,
          office and home phone numbers (if they exist).

          Use the -f option to change a user's full name. Use this tool
          as either chfn or chfn user_name (usable by root only).

          Command syntax:

chfn user_name

          passwd Changes the password of a user. You will need to be root
          if you want to change other user's passwords.

          Simply type passwd to change your own password or to change
          another user's password type:

passwd username
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 11. Text Related Tools

   The text related tools chapter is the largest in this guide, most of
   the time on a GNU/Linux machine you will spend time interacting with
   text. This chapter briefly covers text editors and goes into more
   depth on viewing text, using tools to manipulate text, finding text
   within files and changing text formats between windows based systems
   and GNU/Linux based systems.
     _________________________________________________________________

11.1. Text Editors

          vi A traditional UNIX system text editor, should be on any UNIX
          system. It is fairly difficult to learn but quite powerful, it
          is also quite small and uses minimal amounts of resources.

          Note vim


   vim - vi improved. A newer version of the vulnerable vi editor. Many
   systems use vim rather than vi.

          emacs More than just a text editor. This text editor has a
          steep learning curve but is also very powerful, it is both
          advanced and quite large. Emacs can do anything, surf the
          internet, chat, play games and many other tasks.

   Others
          There are too many different text editors to list here. Have a
          look on the internet, either search for them you will find many
          of them at Sourceforge or Freshmeat.
     _________________________________________________________________

11.2. Text Viewing Tools

          head With no options it shows the first ten lines of a text
          file.

          Use head -n x (where "x" is a number) to display the first x
          lines.

          Try head -F to use a continually updated version of head (if
          the file changes it will be reloaded and displayed), please
          note that using this option will run head is a continuous loop
          so you'll need to use CTRL-C to exit.

          For example:

head -n 20 somelog.txt

          Will display the top 20 entries of the file "somelog.txt".

          tail With no options it shows the last ten lines of a file.

          Use tail -n x (where "x" is a number) to display the last x
          lines.

          Try tail -F to use a continually updated version of tail (if
          the file changes it will be reloaded and displayed), please
          note that using this option will run tail is a continuous loop
          so you'll need to use CTRL-C to exit.

          For example:

tail -n 20 somelog.txt

          Will display the last 20 entries of the file "somelog.txt".

          less Views text, can scroll backwards and forwards. Has many
          different options which are all described in the manual page.

          When less is already running, use :n and :p (type a colon then
          the character) to move to the next and previous files (when
          there are multiple open files).

          Command syntax:

less filename.txt

          Or using a tool (in this example cat):

cat file.txt | less

   more
          Displays text, one page full at a time, more limited than less.
          In this case less is better than more.

more filename.txt

          Or using a tool (is this example cat):

cat file.txt | more

   cat
          Combines (concatenates) multiple documents into one document.
          Can be used on individual files as well.

          Some useful options:

          + -b --- number all non-blank lines
          + -n --- number all lines.

          Also try using nl to number lines (it can do more complex
          numbering), find it under under this section, Section 11.4

          Example:

cat filepart1 filepart2 filepart3 > wholefile.txt

          Would combine (concatenate) filepart1, filepart2 and filepart3
          into the single file "wholefile.txt".

          tac Combines (concatenates) multiple documents into one
          document and outputs them in reverse. Can also be used on
          individual files. Notice that tac is cat written backwards.

          Example:

tac filepart1 filepart2 filepart3 > wholefile.txt

          Would combine (concatenate) filepart1, filepart2 and filepart3
          into the single file but have each of the files written in
          reverse.

   z* commands
          Many commands can be prefixed with a "z" to read/work within a
          gzip compressed file.

          Some examples are zcat, zless, zmore, zgrep, zcmp, zdiff.

          There are many utilities for working with text within
          compressed files without trying to manually de-compress them
          somewhere first...most begin with a "z".

   bz* commands
          There are also a few commands that prefixed with a "bz" to
          read/work within a file compressed with bzip2.

          The tools are bzcat, bzless, bzgrep
     _________________________________________________________________

11.3. Text Information Tools

          wc Word count, count how many words you have in a text
          document. Can also be used to count the lines or bytes within
          the file.

          Use the options -w for words, -l for lines and -c for bytes. Or
          simply run wc with no options to get all three.

          Command syntax:

wc -option file.txt

          style To run various readability tests on a particular text
          file. Will output scores on a number of different readability
          tests (with no options).

          Command syntax:

style -options text_file

          Note Find style in the diction package


   This command is part of the diction package and does not appear to be
   used too often these days

          cmp Determines whether or not two files differ, works on any
          type of file. Very similar to diff only it compares on the
          binary level instead of just the text.

          diff Compares two text files and output a difference report
          (sometimes called a "diff") containing the text that differs
          between two files.

          Can be used to create a 'patch' file (which can be used by
          patch).

          Example:

diff file1.txt file2.txt

          diff will output a '>' (followed by the line) for each line
          that isn't in the first file but is in the second file, and it
          will output a '<' (followed by the line) for each line that is
          in the first file but not in the second file.

   sdiff
          Instead of giving a difference report, it outputs the files in
          two columns, side by side, separated by spaces.

          diff3 Same as diff except for three files.



          comm Compares two files, line-by-line and prints lines that are
          unique to file1 (1st column), unique to file 2 (2nd column) and
          common to both files (3rd column).

          Use comm with the -1, -2, or -3 to suppress the printing of
          those particular lines. Simply run comm to have all three
          listed (ie. unique to files 1 and 2 and common to both).

          Command syntax:

comm file1 file2

          look To output a list of words in the system dictionary that
          begin with a given string -- this is useful for finding words
          that begin with a particular phrase or prefix.

          Give the string as an argument; it is not case sensitive.

          Command syntax:

look string
     _________________________________________________________________

11.4. Text manipulation tools

   Tip Also see


   Also see tac, and cat over in this section, Section 11.2, as they can
   perform text modification too

   sort
          Sorting text with no options the sort is alphabetical. Can be
          run on text files to sort them alphabetically (note it also
          concatenates files), can also be used with a pipe '|' to sort
          the output of a command.

          Use sort -r to reverse the sort output, use the -g option to
          sort 'numerically' (ie read the entire number, not just the
          first digit).

          Examples:

cat shoppinglist.txt | sort

          The above command would run cat on the shopping list then sort
          the results and display them in alphabetical order.

sort -r shoppinglist.txt

          The above command would run sort on a file and sort the file in
          reverse alphabetical order.

          Advanced sort commands:

          sort is a powerful utility, here are some of the more hard to
          learn (and lesser used) commands. Use the -t option to use a
          particular symbol as the separator then use the -k option to
          specify which column you would like to sort by, where column 1
          is the first column before the separator. Also use the -g
          option if numeric sorting is not working correctly (without the
          -g option sort just looks at the first digit of the number).
          Here is a complex example:

sort -t : -k 4 -k 1 -g /etc/passwd | more

          This will sort the "/etc/passwd" file, using the colon ':' as
          the separator. It will sort via the 4th column (GID section, in
          the file) and then sort within that sort using the first (name)
          if there are any ties. The -g is there so it sorts via full
          numbers, otherwise it will have 4000 before 50 (it will just
          look at the first digit...).

          join Will put two lines together assuming they share at least
          one common value on the relevant line. It won't print lines if
          they don't have a common value.

          Command syntax:

join file1 file2

          cut Prints selected parts of lines (of a text file), or, in
          other words, removes certain sections of lines. You may wish to
          remove things according to tabs or commas, or anything else you
          can think of...

          Options for cut:

          + -d --- allows you to specify another delimiter, for example
            ':' is often used with /etc/passwd:

cut -d ':' (and probably some more options here) /etc/passwd

          + -f --- this option works with the text by columns, separated
            according to the delimiter. For example if your file had
            lines like "result,somethingelse,somethingelse" and you only
            wanted result you would use:

cut -d ',' -f 1 /etc/passwd

            This would get you only the usernames in /etc/passwd
          + "," (commas) --- used to separate numbers, these allow you to
            cut particular columns. For example:

cut -d ':' -f 1,7 /etc/passwd

            This would only show the username and the shell that each
            person is setup for in /etc/passwd.
          + "-" (hyphen) --- used to show from line x to line y, for
            example 1-4, (would be from lines 1 to line 4).

cut -c 1-50 file1.txt

            This would cut (display) characters (columns) 1 to 50 of each
            line (and anything else on that line is ignored)
          + -x --- where x is a number to cut from line 1 to "x" and use
            x- (where x is a number) to cut from "x" to the end.

cut -5, 20-, 8 file2.txt

            This would display ("cut") characters (columns) 1 to 5, 8 and
            from 20 to the end.

   ispell/aspell
          To spell check a file interactively, prompts for you to replace
          word or continue. aspell is said to be better at suggesting
          replacement words, but its probably best to find out for
          yourself.

          aspell example:

aspell -c FILE.txt

          This will run aspell on a particular file called "FILE.txt",
          apsell will run interactively and prompt for user input.

          ispell example:

ispell FILE.txt

          This will run ispell on a particular file called "FILE.txt"
          ispell will run interactively and prompt for user input.

          chcase Is used to change the uppercase letters in a file name
          to lowercase (or vice versa).

          You could also use tr to do the same thing...

cat fileName.txt | tr [A-Z] [a-z]  > newFileName.txt

          The above would convert uppercase to lowercase using the the
          file "fileName.txt" as input and outputting the results to
          "newFileName.txt".

cat fileName.txt | tr [a-z] [A-Z] > newFileName.txt

          The above would convert lowercase to uppercase using the the
          file "fileName.txt" as input and outputting the results to
          "newFileName.txt".

          chcase (a perl script) can be found at the chcase homepage.

          fmt (format) a simple text formatter. Use fmt with the -u
          option to output text with "uniform spacing", where the space
          between words is reduced to one space character and the space
          between sentences is reduced to two space characters.

          Example:

fmt -u myessay.txt

          Will make sure the amount of space between sentences is two
          spaces and the amount of space between words is one space.

          paste Puts lines from two files together, either lines of each
          file side by side (normally separated by a tab-stop but you can
          have any symbols(s) you like...) or it can have words from each
          file (the first file then the second file) side by side.

          To obtain a list of words side by side, the first word from the
          first file on the left side separated by a tab-stop then the
          first word from the second file you would type:

paste file1.txt file2.txt

          To have the list displayed in serial, first word from first
          file, [Tab], second word from first file, then third and fourth
          until the end of the first file type:

paste --serial file1.txt file2.txt

          expand Will convert tabs to spaces and output it. Use the
          option -t num to specify the size of a "tapstop", the number of
          characters between each tab.

          Command syntax:

expand file_name.txt

          unexpand Will convert spaces to tabs and output it.

          Command syntax:

unexpand file_name.txt

          uniq Eliminates duplicate entries from a file and it sometimes
          greatly simplifies the display.

          uniq options:

          + -c --- count the number of occurances of each duplicate
          + -u --- list only unique entries
          + -d --- list only duplicate entries

          For example:

uniq -cd phone_list.txt

          This would display any duplicate entries only and a count of
          the number of times that entry has appeared.

          tr (translation). A filter useful to replace all instances of
          characters in a text file or "squeeze" the white space.

          Example:

cat some_file | tr 3 5 > new_file

          This will run the cat program on some file, the output of this
          command will be sent to the tr command, tr will replace all the
          instances of 3 with 5, like a search and replace. You can also
          do other things such as:

cat some_file | tr [A-Z] [a-z] > new_file

          This will run cat on some_file and convert any capital letters
          to lowercase letters (you could use this to change the case of
          file names too...).

          Tip Alternatives


   You can also do a search and replace with a one line Perl command,
   read about it at the end of this section.

          nl The number lines tool, it's default action is to write it's
          input (either the file names given as an argument, or the
          standard input) to the standard output.

          Line numbers are added to every line and the text is indented.

          This command can do take some more advanced numbering options,
          simply read the info page on it.

          These advanced options mainly relate to customisation of the
          numbering, including different forms of separation for
          sections/pages/footers etc.

          Also try cat -n (number all lines) or cat -b (number all
          non-blank lines). For more info on cat check under this
          section: Section 11.2

          There are two ways you can use nl:

nl some_text_file.txt

          The above command would add numbers to each line of
          some_text_file. You could use nl to number the output of
          something as shown in the example below;

grep some_string some_file | nl

   Perl search and replace
          text To search and replace text in a file is to use the
          following one-line Perl command[4]:

$ perl -pi -e "s/oldstring/newstring/g;" filespec [RET]

          In this example, oldstring is the string to search, newstring
          is the string to replace it with, and filespec is the name of
          the file or files to work on. You can use this for more than
          one file.

          Example: To replace the string `helpless' with the string
          `helpful' in all files in the current directory, type:

$ perl -pi -e "s/helpless/helpful/g;" * [RET]

          Also try using tr to do the same thing (see further above in
          this section).

   Tip If these tools are too primitive


   If these text tools are too simple for your purposes then you are
   probably looking at doing some programming or scripting.

   If you would like more information on bash scripting then please see
   the advanced bash scripting guide, authored by Mendel Cooper.

   sed and awk are traditional UNIX system tools for working with text,
   this guide does not provide an explanation of them. sed works on a
   line-by-line basis performing substitution and awk can perform a
   similar task or assist by working on a file and printing out certain
   information (its a programming language).

   You will normally find them installed on your GNU/Linux system and
   will find many tutorials all over the internet, feel free to look them
   up if you ever have to perform many similar operations on a text file.
     _________________________________________________________________

11.5. Text Conversion/Filter Tools

   Filters (UNIX System/dos formats)
          The following filters allow you to change text from Dos-style
          to UNIX system style and vice-versa, or convert a file to other
          formats. Also note that many modern text editors can do this
          for you...

        Why use filters?
                Because UNIX systems and Microsoft use two different
                standards to represent the end-of-line in an ASCII text
                file.

                This can sometimes causes problems in editors or viewers
                which aren't familiar with the other operating systems
                end-of-line style. The following tools allow you to get
                around this difference.

        Whats the difference?
                The difference is very simple, on a Windows text file, a
                newline is signalled by a carriage return followed by a
                newline, '\r\n' in ASCII.

                On a UNIX system a newline is simply a newline, '\n' in
                ASCII.

          dos2unix This converts Microsoft-style end-of-line characters
          to UNIX system style end of line characters.

          Simply type:

dos2unix file.txt

          fromdos This does the same as dos2unix (above).

          Simply type:

fromdos file.txt

          fromdos can be obtained from the from/to dos website.

          unix2dos This converts UNIX system style end of line characters
          to Microsoft-sty le end-of-line characters.

          Simply type:

unix2dos file.txt

          todos This does the same as unix2dos (above).

          Simply type:

todos file.txt

          todos can be obtained from the from/to dos website.

          antiword This filter converts Microsoft word documents into
          plain ASCII text documents.

          Simply type:

antiword file.doc

          You can get antiword from the antiword homepage.

          recode Converts text files between various formats including
          HTML and dozens of different forms of text encodings.

          Use recode -l for a full listing. It can also be used to
          convert text to and from Windows and UNIX system formats (so
          you don't get the weird symbols).

          Caution Warning


   By default recode overwrites the input file, use '<' to use recode as
   a filter only (and to not overwrite the file).

        Examples:


          UNIX system text to Windows text:

recode ..pc file_name

          Windows text to UNIX system text:

recode ..pc/ file_name

          UNIX system Text to Windows Text without overwriting the
          original file (and creating a new output file):

recode ..pc < file_name > recoded_file

          tr (Windows to UNIX system style conversion only). While tr is
          not specifically designed to convert files from Windows-format
          to UNIX system format by doing:

tr -d '\r' < inputFile.txt > outputFile.txt

          The -d switch means to simply delete any occurances of the
          string. Since we are looking for '\r', carriage returns it will
          remove any it finds, making the file a UNIX system text file...
     _________________________________________________________________

11.5.1. Conversion tools

          enscript Converts text files to postscript, rtf, HTML (use
          ghostview to view the postscript file). enscript has a large
          number of options which can be used to customise the output.

          Examples:[5]

enscript --language=html input_file.txt -o output_file.html

          This will take some file and output it as a html file.

enscript --help-highlight

          Display help on using the highlight feature (list all different
          types of highlighting available)

-E[lang]

          Highlight using the lang (pretty print), example:

enscript -E --color --language=html --toc -pfoo.html *.h *.c

          Add all the files with a .h and a .c (C source and header
          files) into a file called foo.html, use colour and add a table
          of contents

          For further options refer to the well written manual page of
          enscript.

          figlet Used to create ASCII "art". Figlet can create several
          different forms (fonts) of ASCII art, its one of the more
          unusual programs around.
     _________________________________________________________________

11.6. Finding Text Within Files

          grep Looks for text within files. For example:

grep this_word this_file.txt

          Example options:

          + -v --- this option is used to display lines which do not
            contain the string.
          + -n --- this option displays the line numbers
          + -w --- this option makes grep match the whole word
          + -A x or -B x (where x is a number) --- display "x" lines
            After or Before the section where the particular word is
            found.
          + -r or rgrep --- search for text within files recursively.

          This command uses regular expressions, for more information
          please see, Section 20.4.2.

          For example, this command would look in the file "rpmlist.txt"
          for anything starting with "rpm":

grep rpm rpmlist.txt

          Or you could use it like this, to search through the output of
          another file:

rpm -qa | grep ogg

          The first command lists all RPM's installed on your system, the
          second finds any containing the string "ogg" and outputs them.

          rgrep A "recursive" version of grep (this is a different
          program to grep). This will search all the files in the current
          directory and all it's subdirectories and print the names of
          the files and the matching line. Follows similar syntax to grep
          (see above). You could also use grep with the -r option to
          achieve the same affect.

          fgrep This version of grep calls grep with the -F option. This
          will look for literal strings only, it won't use or expand any
          kind of regular expression.

          For example you could type:

fgrep a$*b? file.txt

          And fgrep would look for the string "a$*b?" in the file
          "file.txt".

   Tip Other Versions


   There are various versions of grep which are designed to do different
   things try searching for them on the internet or within your
   distribution.
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 12. Mathematical tools

   Tip num-utils homepage


   The "num-utils" homepage, Num Utils, contains a variety of command
   line programs that could be useful when performing maths on your
   GNU/Linux machine.

          units Convert units of measurement between different scales.
          For example, centimeters to inches, litres to gallons.

          Simply run the program, I recommend running it as follows:

units --verbose

          This will run the program and it will tell you exactly what it
          is doing.

          Example: you enter "60 meters" then you want it worked out in
          "kilometers". The first line will tell you what this evaluates
          to.

          If you wanted the conversion rate for "meters" to "kilometers"
          read the second line of the output (which will tell you
          meters/1000).

          Note: press CTRL-D (end-of-file key) when you are finished
          using units.

          python Python is a very powerful, easy to learn, general
          purpose, interpreted programming language. .h and it makes a
          great calculator! If you don't have a calculator installed then
          simply type python, then hit [Enter].

          This will execute the Python interpreter in interactive mode.
          Type your sums just like you would use a calculator. Note that
          if you want to work out fractions make sure you use a decimal
          point and a zero to obtain the correct answer (otherwise it
          will use integer division).

          To start python in interactive mode, simply type:

python

          Once python is started you can use it to add up sums or maybe
          do some python programming.

          Use CTRL-D (end-of-file key) to exit the Python interpreter.

          numgrep A little bit like grep only this is designed for
          numbers only.

          Use '/' (forward slashes) to contain each expression.

          Use m<n> to find multiples of the number n and use f<n> to find
          factors of the number n.

          Use commas to seperate expressions and .. (two dots) to
          represent a range.

          For example, to input from standard input you could simply
          type:

numgrep

          To input from a file and look for numbers between 1 and 1000
          you could type:

numgrep /1..1000/ file_name

          Note This tool comes from the num-utils package


   Please note that this tool is part of the num-utils package.
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 13. Network Commands

   The network commands chapter explains various tools which can be
   useful when networking with other computers both within the network
   and accross the internet, obtaining more information about other
   computers. This chapter also includes information on tools for network
   configuration, file transfer and working with remote machines.

          netstat Displays contents of /proc/net files. It works with the
          Linux Network Subsystem, it will tell you what the status of
          ports are ie. open, closed, waiting, masquerade connections. It
          will also display various other things. It has many different
          options.

          tcpdump This is a sniffer, a program that captures packets off
          a network interface and interprets them for you. It understands
          all basic Internet protocols, and can be used to save entire
          packets for later inspection.

   ping
          The ping command (named after the sound of an active sonar
          system) sends echo requests to the host you specify on the
          command line, and lists the responses received their round trip
          time.

          You simply use ping as:

ping ip_or_host_name

          The host name will work if the IP address is listed in
          "/etc/hosts" (if it's within your network) or if your on the
          internet it will use the DNS system. Note to stop ping
          (otherwise it goes forever) use CTRL-C (break).

          hostname Tells the user the host name of the computer they are
          logged into. Note: may be called host.

          traceroute traceroute will show the route of a packet. It
          attempts to list the series of hosts through which your packets
          travel on their way to a given destination. Also have a look at
          xtraceroute (one of several graphical equivalents of this
          program).

          Command syntax:

traceroute machine_name_or_ip

   tracepath
          tracepath performs a very simlar function to traceroute the
          main difference is that tracepath doesn't take complicated
          options.

          Command syntax:

tracepath machine_name_or_ip

          findsmb findsmb is used to list info about machines that
          respond to SMB name queries (eg. windows based machines sharing
          their hard disk's).

          Command syntax:

findsmb

          This would find all machines possible, you may need to specify
          a particular subnet to query those machines only...

          nmap " network exploration tool and security scanner". nmap is
          a very advanced network tool used to query machines (local or
          remote) as to whether they are up and what ports are open on
          these machines.

          A simple usage example:

nmap machine_name

          This would query your own machine as to what ports it keeps
          open. nmap is a very powerful tool, documentation is available
          on the nmap site as well as the information in the manual page.
     _________________________________________________________________

13.1. Network Configuration

          ifconfig This command is used to configure network interfaces,
          or to display their current configuration. In addition to
          activating and deactivating interfaces with the "up" and "down"
          settings, this command is necessary for setting an interface's
          address information if you don't have the ifcfg script.

          Use ifconfig as either:

ifconfig

          This will simply list all information on all network devices
          currently up.

ifconfig eth0 down

          This will take eth0 (assuming the device exists) down, it won't
          be able to receive or send anything until you put it "up"
          again.

          Clearly there are a lot more commands for this tool, you will
          need to read the manual/info page to learn more about them.

          ifup Use ifup device-name to bring an interface up by following
          a script (which will contain your default networking settings).
          Simply type ifup and you will get help on using the script.

          For example typing:

ifup eth0

          Will bring eth0 up if it is currently down.

          ifdown Use ifdown device-name to bring an interface down using
          a script (which will contain your default network settings).
          Simply type ifdown and you will get help on using the script.

          For example typing:

ifdown eth0

          Will bring eth0 down if it is currently up.

          ifcfg Use ifcfg to configure a particular interface. Simply
          type ifcfg to get help on using this script.

          For example, to change eth0 from 192.168.0.1 to 192.168.0.2 you
          could do:

ifcfg eth0 del 192.168.0.1
ifcfg eth0 add 192.168.0.2

          The first command takes eth0 down and removes that stored IP
          address and the second one brings it back up with the new
          address.

          route The route command is the tool used to display or modify
          the routing table. To add a gateway as the default you would
          type:

route add default gw some_computer
     _________________________________________________________________

13.2. Internet Specific Commands

   Note that should DNS not be configured correctly on your machine, you
   need to edit "/etc/resolv.conf" to make things work...

          host Performs a simple lookup of an internet address (using the
          Domain Name System, DNS). Simply type:

host ip_address

          or

host domain_name

          dig The "domain information groper" tool. More advanced then
          host... Give a host-name as an argument to output information
          about that host, including it's IP address, hostname and
          various other information.

          For example, to look up information about "www.amazon.com"
          type:

dig www.amazon.com

          To find the host name for a given IP address (ie a reverse
          lookup), use dig with the `-x' option.

dig -x 100.42.30.95

          This will look up the address (which may or may not exist) and
          returns the address of the host, for example if that was the
          address of http://slashdot.org then it would return
          "http://slashdot.org".

          dig takes a huge number of options (at the point of being too
          many), refer to the manual page for more information.

          whois (now BW whois) is used to look up the contact information
          from the "whois" databases, the servers are only likely to hold
          major sites. Note that contact information is likely to be
          hidden or restricted as it is often abused by crackers and
          others looking for a way to cause malicious damage to
          organisation's.

          wget (GNU Web get) used to download files from the World Wide
          Web.

          To archive a single web site, use the -m or --mirror (mirror)
          option.

          Use the -nc (no clobber) option to stop wget from overwriting a
          file if you already have it.

          Use the -c or --continue option to continue a file that was
          unfinished by wget or another program.

          Simple usage example:

wget url_for_file

          This would simply get a file from a site.

          wget can also retrieve multiple files using standard wildcards,
          the same as the type used in bash, like *, [ ], ?. Simply use
          wget as per normal but use single quotation marks (' ') on the
          URL to prevent bash from expanding the wildcards. There are
          complications if you are retrieving from a http site (see
          below...).

          Advanced usage example, (used from wget manual page):

wget --spider --force-html -i bookmarks.html

          This will parse the file bookmarks.html and check that all the
          links exist.

          Advanced usage; this is how you can download multiple files
          using http (using a wildcard...).

          Notes: http doesn't support downloading using standard
          wildcards, ftp does so you may use wildcards with ftp and it
          will work fine. A work-around for this http limitation is shown
          below:

wget -r -l1 --no-parent -A.gif http://www.website.com[6]

          This will download (recursively), to a depth of one, in other
          words in the current directory and not below that. This command
          will ignore references to the parent directory, and downloads
          anything that ends in ".gif". If you wanted to download say,
          anything that ends with ".pdf" as well than add a -A.pdf before
          the website address. Simply change the website address and the
          type of file being downloaded to download something else. Note
          that doing -A.gif is the same as doing -A "*.gif" (double
          quotes only, single quotes will not work).

          wget has many more options refer to the examples section of the
          manual page, this tool is very well documented.

          Note Alternative website downloaders


   You may like to try alternatives like httrack. A full GUI website
   downloader written in python and available for GNU/Linux

          curl curl is another remote downloader. This remote downloader
          is designed to work without user interaction and supports a
          variety of protocols, can upload/download and has a large
          number of tricks/work-arounds for various things. It can access
          dictionary servers (dict), ldap servers, ftp, http, gopher, see
          the manual page for full details.

          To access the full manual (which is huge) for this command
          type:

curl -M

          For general usage you can use it like wget. You can also login
          using a user name by using the -u option and typing your
          username and password like this:

curl -u username:password http://www.placetodownload/file

          To upload using ftp you the -T option:

curl -T file_name ftp://ftp.uploadsite.com

          To continue a file use the -C option:

curl -C - -o file http://www.site.com
     _________________________________________________________________

13.3. Remote Administration Related

          ssh Secure shell, remotely login on a machine running the sshd
          daemon. Once you are logged in you have a secure shell and are
          able to execute various commands on that computer such as copy
          files, shut it down, just like it was your own GNU/Linux PC.

          Or you can use ssh with a full hostname to connect to a remote
          machine (as in across the internet).

          Examples:

ssh hostname

          Connect to a remote system with your current user name, you
          will obviously need the password of the user on the other
          machine.

ssh username@hostname

          Connect to a remote system with your a different user name, you
          will obviously need the password of the user on the other
          machine.

          scp Secure copy, part of the ssh package. Allows you to copy
          files from one computer to another computer, use -r to copy
          recursively (copy entire directories and subdirectories).

          scp's syntax is always

scp machineToBeCopiedFrom machineToBeCopiedTo

          Where either machine can be a local directory (on the current
          filesystem /) or a remote machine. Remote machines are usually
          machinesFullName:/directory (if you omit the directory part it
          will just assume the home directory of the username you are
          logging in with).

          The example below copies all files from the current directory
          (not including any directories), the command will login to
          "new" using the username of the person currently logged in on
          the local computer, the files will be copied to the root
          directory of the remote computer called "new" (which is
          probably on the LAN):

scp * @new:/

          You could also copy files from another computer to another
          computer. Let's say you are on a computer called "p100". And
          you want to copy files (and directories) from "hp166" (in the
          /tmp directory and anything below that) to "new" and put the
          files in new's tempory directory. You could do:

scp -r hp166:/tmp new:/tmp

          Assuming you were logged in as "fred" you would need passwords
          for user "fred" on the computers hp166 and new. Add an
          user_name@ before the computer name to login under a different
          user name.

          For example to perform the above command with user "root" on
          hp166 and "anon" on new you would type:

scp -r root@hp166:/tmp anon@new:/tmp

          To copy from a remote machine to a local computer you simply do
          things in reverse:

scp remoteMachine:/mystuff/* .

          This will copy files on the remote machine in the directory
          "mystuff" to your local computer.

          Note Remote Machines


   Please note that when working with a remote machine you need to have a
   : (colon) after the machine name even if you want the files in their
   home directory. Otherwise the command will fail.

          sftp Secure ftp, another part of the ssh package. This command
          is similar to ftp but uses an encrypted tunnel to connect to an
          ftp server and is therefore more secure than just plain ftp.

          The command usage is very similar to ftp (the command-line
          tool), sftp (once running) uses commands such as help (for
          help), put (send files to the server), get (download files from
          the server) and various others, refer to the manual page and
          internal documentation for further details.

   Tip Graphical programs


   Sometimes its easier to manage files with a GUI, many of these
   programs do have good GUI equivalents, try searching the internet or
   sites like Sourceforge or Freshmeat.
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 14. Security

   The security chapter is designed to give the user a very basic level
   of understanding of security within the GNU/Linux operating system.
   This chapter also has information on the UNIX system style file
   permissions used on most GNU/Linux machines.

   More comprehensive guides can be found at the Linux Documentation
   Project, such as the Linux Security howto authored by Kevin Fenzi and
   Dave Wreski.

   There are also sites such as Linux Security. If your looking for a
   program to assist in locking down your operating system you may want
   to check Bastille Linux that runs on RPM based distributions
   (Redhat/Mandriva/SuSE).

   Changing root's
          password This trick works well if you have forgotten your
          superuser password, type linux single at a LILO/Grub prompt.
          Then passwd once the system has started and you are at a
          console.

        Grub:
                If you are using grub go to the relevant line (the one
                with the kernel and various options) then press 'e' for
                edit and add "single" on to the end of the section that
                boots the kernel. Then hit [Enter] and press 'b' (to
                boot).

        Lilo:
                If you are using lilo press escape and type " linux
                single" and then hit [Enter] to boot.

   Caution Security Warning


   This is also a basic security hazard if you have others using your
   computer and security is a concern, you may like to add a password to
   your LILO or Grub prompt to stop this from being done.

   umask
          The umask is a value set by the root user of the system. It
          controls the default permissions of any file created.

          It has an unusual way of doing things ...to set the umask you
          must describe file permissions by saying what will be disabled.

          You can do this by doing 777 minus the file permissions you
          want. Note that umask works with numbers only, for an
          explanation see Section 14.2

          Example:

          You want the default to be equivalent to chmod 750 (user has
          r/w/x, group has r/x and other has no permissions), then the
          command you would use would be:

umask 027
     _________________________________________________________________

14.1. Some basic Security Tools

          md5sum Compute an md5 checksum (128-bit) for file "file_name"
          to verify it's integrity. You normally use the " md5sum -c"
          option to check against a given file (often with a ".asc"
          extention) to check whether the various files are correct, this
          comes in handy when downloading isos as the checking is
          automated for you.

          Command syntax:

md5sum file_name

   mkpasswd -l 10
          This command will make a random password of length ten
          characters. This password generator creates passwords that are
          designed to be hard to guess. There are similar alternatives to
          this program scattered around the internet.
     _________________________________________________________________

14.2. File Permissions

   Use ls -l to see the permissions of files (list-long). They will
   appear like this, note that I have added spaces between permissions to
   make it easier to read:

   Where: r = read, w = write, x = execute
  -  rwx   rw-   r--  1  (1)  newuser newuser
type (2) owner (3) group (4) others (5)

   (1) 
          This number is the number of hard links (pointers) to this
          file. You can use ln to create another hard-link to the file.
   (2) 
          This is the type of file. '-' means a regular file, 'd' would
          mean a directory, 'l' would mean a link. There are also other
          types such as 'c' for character device and 'b' for block device
          (found in the /dev/ directory).
   (3) 
          These are the permissions for the owner of the file (the user
          who created the file).
   (4) 
          These are the permissions for the group, any users who belong
          is the same group as the user who created the file will have
          these permissions.
   (5) 
          These are the permissions for everyone else. Any user who is
          outside the group will have these permissions to the file.

   The two names at the end are the username and group respectively.

          chmod Change file access permissions for a file(s).

          There are two methods to change permissions using chmod;
          letters or numbers.

        Letters Method:
                use a + or - (plus or minus sign) to add or remove
                permissions for a file. Use an equals sign =, to specify
                new permissions and remove the old ones for the
                particular type of user(s).

                You can use chmod letter where the letters are:

                a (all (everyone)), u (user), g (group) and o (other).

          Examples:

chmod u+rw somefile

          This would give the user read and write permission.

chmod o-rwx somefile

          This will remove read/write/execute permissions from other
          users (doesn't include users within your group).

chmod a+r somefile

          This will give everyone read permission for the file.

chmod a=rx somefile

          This would give everyone execute and read permission to the
          file, if anyone had write permission it would be removed.

        Numbers Method:
                you can also use numbers (instead of letters) to change
                file permissions. Where:

                r (read) = 4 w (write) = 2 x (execute) = 1

          Numbers can be added together so you can specify
          read/write/execute permissions; read+write = 6, read+execute =
          5, read+write+execute = 7

          Examples:

chmod 777 somefile

          This would give everyone read/write/execute permission on
          "this_file". The first number is user, second is group and
          third is everyone else (other).

chmod 521 somefile

          This would give the user read and execute permission, and the
          group write permission (but not read permission!) and everyone
          else execute permission. (Note that it's just an example,
          settings like that don't really make sense...).

          chown Changes the ownership rights of a file (hence the name
          'chown' - change owner). This program can only be used by root.

          Use the -R option to change things recursively, in other words,
          all matching files including those in subdirectories.

          Command syntax:

chown owner:group the_file_name

   sticky
          bit Only the person who created the file may delete it, even if
          other people have write permission. You can turn it on by
          typing:

chmod 1700 somefile (where 1 = sticky bit)

          or (where t represents the sticky bit)

chmod +t somefile

          To turn it off you would need to type:

chmod 0700 somefile (where the zero would mean no sticky bit)

          or (where t represents the sticky bit)

chmod -t somefile

          Note that the permissions aren't relevant in the numbers
          example, only the first number (1 = on, 0 = off).

          Tip Sticky Directories


   You may also have sticky directories, the /tmp directory is usually an
   example of a sticky directory.
   The files inside can only be deleted by the super-user (root) or the
   creator of the file.
   Sticky directories will show a 't' at the end of their file
   permissions (when listed using ls -l). This may be useful when you
   have a directory that everyone has access to but no-one should be
   deleting each others files.

   suid
          Allow SUID/SGID (switch user ID/switch group ID) access. You
          would normally use chmod to turn this on or off for a
          particular file, suid is generally considered a security hazard
          so be careful when using this.

          Example:

chmod a+s file_name

          This will give everyone permission to execute the file with the
          permissions of the user who set the +s switch.

          Caution Security Hazard


   This is obviously a security hazard. You should avoid using the suid
   flag unless necessary.

   chattr
          Change file system attributes (works on ext2fs and possibly
          others...). Use the -R option to change files recursively,
          chattr has a large number of attributes which can be set on a
          file, read the manual page for further information.

          Example:

chattr +i /sbin/lilo.conf[7]

          This sets the 'immutable' flag on a file. Use a '+' to add
          attributes and a '-' to take them away. The +i will prevent any
          changes (accidental or otherwise) to the "lilo.conf" file. If
          you wish to modify the lilo.conf file you will need to unset
          the immutable flag: chattr -i. Note some flags can only be used
          by root; -i, -a and probably many others.

          Note there are many different attributes that chattr can
          change, here are a few more which may be useful:

          + A (no Access time) --- if a file or directory has this
            attribute set, whenever it is accessed, either for reading of
            for writing, it's last access time will not be updated. This
            can be useful, for example, on files or directories which are
            very often accessed for reading, especially since this
            parameter is the only one which changes on an inode when it's
            opened read-only.
          + a (append only) --- if a file has this attribute set and is
            open for writing, the only operation possible will be to
            append data to it's previous contents. For a directory, this
            means that you can only add files to it, but not rename or
            delete any existing file. Only root can set or clear this
            attribute.
          + s (secure deletion) --- when such a file or directory with
            this attribute set is deleted, the blocks it was occupying on
            disk are written back with zeroes (similar to using shred).
            Note that this does work on the ext2, and ext3 filesystems
            but is unlikely to work on others (please see the
            documentation for the filesystem you are using). Or try using
            shred when you want to delete the file see Chapter 7

          lsattr (list attributes). This will list if whether a file has
          any special attributes (as set by chattr). Use the -R option to
          list recursively and try using the -d option to list
          directories like other files rather than listing their
          contents.

          Command syntax:

lsattr

          This will list files in the current directory, you may also
          like to specify a directory or a file:

lsattr /directory/or/file
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 15. Archiving Files

   The archiving files chapter provides some basic information on the
   simple programs that you can use to archive files. You will often see
   these programs used when you try to install programs without using a
   package management tool.
   Note This is not a backup guide


   Please note that while tar is useful for regular purposes, and
   possibly combined with bash sciprting or similar it can become useful,
   it is not a great program for performing real backups of data.

   You should try searching the internet if you are looking for backup
   programs on GNU/Linux or try Sourceforge or Freshmeat for programs
   that you can use. You may also like to see rsync, Section 15.2.
     _________________________________________________________________

15.1. tar (tape archiver)

   Type tar then -option(s)

   Options list:
     * c --- create.
     * v --- verbose, give more output, show what files are being worked
       with (extracted or added).
     * f --- file (create or extract from file) - should always be the
       last option otherwise the command will not work.
     * z --- put the file though gzip or use gunzip on the file first.
     * x --- extract the files from the tarball.
     * p --- preserves dates, permissions of the original files.
     * j --- send archive through bzip2.
     * --exclude=pattern --- this will stop certain files from being
       archived (using a standard wild card pattern) or a single file
       name.

   tar examples


tar -cvpf name_of_file.tar files_to_be_backed_up

          This would create a tape archive (no compressing).

tar -zxvpf my_tar_file.tar.gz

          This would extract files (verbosely) from a gzipped tape
          archive.
     _________________________________________________________________

15.2. rsync

          rsync rsync is a replacement for the old rcp (remote-copy)
          command. It can use ssh for encryption and is a very flexible
          tool, it can copy from local machine to local machine, from
          local to remote (and vice-versa), and to and from rsync
          servers.

          rsync uses an advanced differencing algorithm, so when to
          copies or syncs something it will (a) only copy new/changed
          files and (b) if the files have being changed it will copy the
          differences between the files (not the entire file). Using this
          method rsync saves time and bandwidth.

          rsync also has advanced exclusion options similar to GNU tar.
          rsync has a well written manual page, for further information
          read the rsync documentation online or type:

man rsync

          If you wish to visit the rsync site you will find it over here
     _________________________________________________________________

15.3. Compression

   There are two main compression utilities used in GNU/Linux. It's
   normal to first "tar" a bunch of files (using the tar program of
   course) and then compress them with either bzip2 or gzip. Of course
   either of these tools could be used without tar, although they are not
   designed to work on more than one file (they use the UNIX tools
   philosophy, let tar group the files, they will do the
   compression...this simplifies their program). It's normal to use tar
   and then use these tools on them, or use tar with the correct options
   to use these compression programs.

   GNU zip (gzip)
          gzip is the GNU zip compression program and probably the most
          common compression format on UNIX-like operating systems.

gzip your_tar_file.tar

          This will compress a tar archive with GNU zip, usually with a
          .gz extension. Gzip can compress any type of file, it doesn't
          have to be a tar archive.

gunzip your_file.gz

          This will decompress a gzipped file, and leave the contents in
          the current directory.

   bzip2
          bzip2 is a newer compression program which offers superior
          compression to gzip at the cost of more processor time.

bzip2 your_tar_file.tar

          This will compress a tar archive with the bzip2 compression
          program, usually with a .bz extension. bzip2 can compress any
          type of file, it doesn't have to be a tar archive.

bunzip2 your_file.tar.bz2

          This will decompress a file compressed by bzip2, and leave the
          contents in the current directory.

          zipinfo Use zipinfo to find detailed information about a zip
          archive (the ones usually generally used by ms-dos and windows,
          for example winzip).

          Command syntax:

zipinfo zip_file.zip

          zipgrep Will run grep to look for files within a zip file
          (ms-dos style, for example winzip) without manually
          decompressing the file first.

          Command syntax:

zipgrep pattern zip_file.zip

          bzip2recover Used to recover files from a damaged bzip2
          archive. It simply extracts out all the working blocks as there
          own bzip2 archives, you can than use bzip2 -t on each file to
          test the integrity of them and extract the working files.

          bzme Will convert a file that is zipped or gzipped to a file
          compressed using bzip2.

          Command syntax:

bzme filename

   Tip Tip


   Both gzip and bzip2 supply tools to work within compressed files for
   example listing the files within the archive, running less on them,
   using grep to find files within the archive et cetera.

   For gzip the commands are prefixed with z, zcat, zless, zgrep.

   For bzip2 the commands are prefixed with bz, bzcat, bzless, bzgrep.
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 16. Graphics tools (command line based)

   The graphics tools chapter explains some image programs that can be
   called from the command-line. While I have found image programs that
   can be used from the command-line, zgv is the only one I've ever heard
   of, I did not find them very useful. All the tools listed use the X
   windowing system to work and simply run from the command line (so they
   can be scripted/automated if necessary).

          montage Creates a 'montage', an image created of many other
          images, arranged in a random fashion.

          Command syntax:

montage r34.jpg r32.jpg skylines* skyline_images.miff

          The above would create a "montage" of images (it would tile a
          certain number of images) into a composite image called
          "skyline_images.miff", you could always use display to view the
          image.

          Note Note


   Note that the images are converted to the same size (scaled) so they
   can be tiled together.

   convert
          To convert the file format of an image to another image format.
          convert is used to change a files format, for example from a
          jpeg to a bitmap or one of many other formats. convert can also
          manipulate the images as well (see the man page or the
          ImageMagick site).

          Example from Jpeg to PNG format:

convert JPEG: thisfile.jpg PNG: thisfile.png

          import Captures screen-shots from the X server and saves them
          to a file. A screen-dump of what X is doing.

          Command syntax:

import file_name

          display display is used to display (output) images on the
          screen. Once open you are can also perform editing functions
          and are able to read/write images. It has various interesting
          options such as the ability to display images as a slide show
          and the ability to capture screenshots of a single window
          on-screen.

          Command syntax (for displaying an image):

display image_name

          To display a slide show of images, open the images you want
          possibly using a wild card, for example:

display *.jpg

          And then click on the image to bring up the menu and then look
          under the miscellaneous menu for the slide show option.

          Caution Speed Warning


   Be careful when opening multiple large sized images (especially on a
   slow machine) and putting the slide show on a small delay between
   image changes. Your processor will be overloaded and it will take a
   significant amount of time to be able to close ImageMagick.

   identify
          Will identify the type of image as well as it's size, colour
          depth and various other information. Use the -verbose option to
          show detailed information on the particular file(s).

          Command syntax:

identify image_name

          mogrify mogrify is another ImageMagick command which is used to
          transform images in a number of different ways, including
          scaling, rotation and various other effects. This command can
          work on a single file or in batch.

          For example, to convert a large number of tiff files to jpeg
          files you could type:

mogrify -format jpeg *.tiff

          This command has the power to do a number of things in batch
          including making thumbnails of sets of images.

          For this you could type:[8]

mogrify -geometry 120x120 *.jpg

          showrgb showrgb is used to uncompile an rgb colour-name
          database. The default is the one that X was built with. This
          database can be used to find the correct colour combination for
          a particular colour (well it can be used as a rough guide
          anyway).

          To list the colours from the X database, simply type:

showrgb

   Note Please note:


   All tools listed, excluding showrgb are part of the ImageMagick
   package. Type man ImageMagick for a full list of available commands.
   Or see the ImageMagick site ImageMagick for further information.
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 17. Working with MS-DOS files

   Use the mtools programs to work with MS-DOS based files, execute
   mtools for a full listing of available m* tools. There are a lot of
   files within the mtools package for working with MS-DOS disks, also
   try the info documentation of mtools for more details.
   Note The use of slashes


   Note that with mtools commands you can use the slashes on the a: part
   either way (ie. backslash (windows-style) or forward slash (UNIX
   system style)).

          mformat Formats an unmounted disk as an ms-dos floppy disk.
          Usage is similar to the ms-dos format utility, to format the
          first floppy disk you can type:

mformat a:

          mcopy Copies files from an ms-dos disk when it's not mounted.
          Similar to the ms-dos copy command except it's more advanced.

          Command syntax:

mcopy a:/file_or_files /destination/directory

          mmount Mount an ms-dos disk, without using the normal UNIX
          system mount.

          For example:

mmount a: /mnt/floppy

          This will mount the floppy under /mnt/floppy (this option may
          or may not be necessary, it depends on your /etc/fstab setup).

          mbadblocks Scans an ms-dos (fat formatted disk) for bad blocks,
          it marks any unused bad blocks as "bad" so they won't be used.

          Example:

mbadblocks a:

          dosfsck This program is used to check and repair ms-dos based
          filesystems. Use the -a option to automatically repair the
          filesystem (ie don't ask the user questions), the -t option to
          mark un-readable clusters as bad and the -v option to be more
          verbose (print more information).

          Example:

dosfsck -at /dev/fd0

          This would check your floppy disk for any errors (and bad
          sectors) and repair them automatically.
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 18. Scheduling Commands to run in the background

   There are two main tools used to perform scheduled tasks, at and cron.
   You may also like to try anacron if your computer does not run
   continuously, as cron will only work if your computer is left on
   (anacron can catch up with the scheduled tasks the next time the
   computer is on...).

   at
          'at' executes a command once on a particular day, at a
          particular time. at will add a particular command to be
          executed.

          Examples:

at 21:30

          You then type the commands you want executed then press the
          end-of-file character (normally CTRL-D ). Also try:

at now + time

          This will run at at the current time + the hours/mins/seconds
          you specify (use at now + 1 hour to have command(s) run in 1
          hour from now...)

          You can also use the -f option to have at execute a particular
          file (a shell script).

at -f shell_script now + 1 hour

          This would run the shell script 1 hour from now.

          atq Will list jobs currently in queue for the user who executed
          it, if root executes at it will list all jobs in queue for the
          at daemon. Doesn't need or take any options.

          atrm Will remove a job from the 'at' queue.

          Command syntax:

atrm job_no

          Will delete the job "job_no" (use atq to find out the number of
          the job)

   cron
          cron can be used to schedule a particular function to occur
          every minute, hour, day, week, or month.

          It's normal to use the crontab to perform the editing functions
          as this automates the process for the cron daemon and makes it
          easier for normal users to use cron.

          Tip Anacron


   anacron is another tool designed for systems which are not always on,
   such as home computers
   While cron will not run if the computer is off, anacron will simply
   run the command when the computer is next on (it catches up with
   things).

          crontab crontab is used to edit, read and remove the files
          which the cron daemon reads.

          Options for crontab (use crontab -option(s)):

          + -e --- to edit the file.
          + -l --- to list the contents of the file.
          + -u username --- use the -u with a username argument to work
            with another users crontab file.

          When using crontab -e you have a number of fields (6) what they
          mean is listed below:

                              Field
                          Allowed Values
                              minute
                               0-59
                               hour
                               0-23
                           day of month
                               1-31
                              month
                    1-12 (or names, see below)
                           day of week
          0-7 (0 or 7 is Sun, or use three letter names)

          There are also a number of shortcut methods for common tasks,
          including:[9]

          + @reboot --- run command at reboot
          + @yearly --- same as 0 0 1 1 *
          + @annually --- same as @yearly
          + @monthly --- same as 0 0 1 * *
          + @weekly --- same as 0 0 * * 0
          + @daily --- same as 0 0 * * *
          + @midnight --- same as @daily
          + @hourly --- same as 0 * * * *

          [10]

          Note that * (asterisk) is used to mean anything (similar to the
          wildcard). For example if you leave the day part (the 5th
          place) with an asterisk it would mean everyday.

          Lists are allowed. A list is a set of numbers (or ranges)
          separated by commas. Examples: ``1,2,5,9'', ``0-4,8-12".

          Step values can be used in conjunction with ranges. Following a
          range with ``/<number>'' specifies skips of the number's value
          through the range. For example, ``0-23/2'' can be used in the
          hours field to specify command execution every other hour (the
          alternative in the V7 standard is
          ``0,2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18,20,22''). Steps are also permitted
          after an asterisk, so if you want to say ``every two hours'',
          just use ``*/2''.

          When writing a crontab entry you simply type in six fields
          separated by spaces, the first five are those listed in the
          table (using numbers or letters and numbers as appropriate),
          the 6th field is the command to be executed and any options,
          cron will read everything up until the newline.

          Example:

5 4 * * sun echo "run at 5 after 4 every sunday"

          This would run the echo command with the string shown at 4:05
          every Sunday.
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 19. Miscellaneous

   The miscellaneous chapter contains commands that don't really fit into
   the other sections of this guide.

   renaming
          extensions To rename all of the files in the current directory
          with a '.htm' extension to '.html', type:

$ chcase -x 's/htm/html/' '*.htm'

          You can get a copy of the chcase perl script here.

          For more complex renaming you should read Section 7.3

   rel[11]
          Use rel to analyze text files for relevance to a given set of
          keywords. It outputs the names of those files that are relevant
          to the given keywords, ranked in order of relevance; if a file
          does not meet the criteria, it is not outputted in the
          relevance listing.

   units man
          page There is a man page, part of the Linux Programmers Manual
          called "units". It displays various information on the various
          scientific measurements (such as mega, giga et cetera). This
          manual page also has a short discussion about the argument over
          which standard should be used to measure data (ie. the kibibyte
          vs kilobyte).

          To access this man page type:

man 7 units

   fortune
          fortune is a tool which will print a random, hopefully
          interesting quote or entertaining short piece of writing. There
          are options to customise which area the epigrams should come
          from. Just type fortune to get a random epigram from any
          section.

          Simply type:

fortune
     _________________________________________________________________

Chapter 20. Mini-Guides

   The mini-guides chapter is a section of the document that describes
   certain concepts in more depth than the usual command descriptions.
   The information listed is fairly specific as I have tried to avoid the
   duplication of too much information that is already online.
     _________________________________________________________________

20.1. RPM: Redhat Package Management System

          Checking Installed RPM's

   Use the rpm -V option to check whether or not a package has been
   modified.

   For example:
   rpm -V textutils

   If none of the files from the textutils package have changed then rpm
   will exit without outputting any data. If, on the other hand, the
   program has changed, you may see something like this:
   U.5....T /bin/cat

   This isn't as cryptic as it appears. The line returned from rpm -V
   contains any number of eight characters plus the full path to the
   file. Here are the characters and their meaning:[12]
     * S --- file Size differs
     * M --- Mode differs (includes permissions and file type)
     * 5 --- MD5 sum differs
     * D --- Device major/minor number mis-match
     * L --- readLink(2) path mis-match
     * U --- User ownership differs
     * G --- Group ownership differs
     * T --- mTime differs

   Tip Mandriva Users Note


   Mandriva Linux uses a customised version of RPM called urpmi (It
   consists of the urpm* commands, urpmi to install, urpme to remove and
   urpmf and urpmq to query).

   This customised version has advantages over standard RPM, including
   automatic-dependency solving and Debian apt-get style functions
   (ability to download programs over the internet and have all
   dependencies resolved automatically).

   The urpm* commands are all described in detail in Mandriva's
   documentation and various sources online.
     _________________________________________________________________

20.2. Checking the Hard Disk for errors

   Checking the hard disk for errors on your primary drive is very, very
   rarely required in GNU/Linux, most checking is automated on start-up
   if it is required. If you do need to check the hard disk for errors
   you will first need to unmount it. Then use the file system checker,
   fsck.
   fsck.file_system_type

   If you had an ext3 file-system then it would be:
   fsck.ext3

   Tip Also try


   You can also try using:
   fsck -t file_system_type
     _________________________________________________________________

20.3. Duplicating disks

   This simple technique shows you how you would duplicate floppy disks
   in a GNU/Linux system using dd. This technique is not as useful as it
   used to be but can still be used for creating an image of a cd
   (although that is best done through the cd burning program).

   This information has been taken from the Linux Online Classroom, see
   [4] in the Bibliography for further details.
$ dd if=/dev/fd0 of=floppy-image
$ dd if=floppy-image of=/dev/fd0

   The first dd makes an exact image of the floppy to the file
   floppy-image, the second one writes the image to the floppy. (The user
   has presumably switched the floppy before the second command.
   Otherwise the command pair is of doubtful usefulness).

   Similar techinques can be used when creating bootdisks, you simply use
   dd to transfer the image to the floppy disk.
     _________________________________________________________________

20.4. Wildcards

   Wildcars are useful in many ways for a GNU/Linux system and for
   various other uses. Commands can use wildcards to perform actions on
   more than one file at a time, or to find part of a phrase in a text
   file. There are many uses for wildcards, there are two different major
   ways that wildcards are used, they are globbing patterns/standard
   wildcards that are often used by the shell. The alternative is regular
   expressions, popular with many other commands and popular for use with
   text searching and manipulation.
   Tip Tip


   If you have a file with wildcard expressions in it then you can use
   single quotes to stop bash expanding them or use backslashes (escape
   characters), or both.

   For example if you wanted to create a file called 'fo*' (fo and
   asterisk) you would have to do it like this (note that you shouldn't
   create files with names like this, this is just an example):
  touch 'fo*'

   Note that parts of both subsections on wildcards are based (at least
   in part) off the grep manual and info pages. Please see the
   Bibliography for further information.
     _________________________________________________________________

20.4.1. Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)

   Standard wildcards (also known as globbing patterns) are used by
   various command line utilities to work with multiple files. For more
   information on standard wildcards (globbing patterns) refer to the
   manual page by typing:
   man 7 glob

   Note Can be used by


   Standard wildcards are used by nearly any command (including mv, cp,
   rm and many others).

   ? (question mark)
          this can represent any single character. If you specified
          something at the command line like "hd?" GNU/Linux would look
          for hda, hdb, hdc and every other letter/number between a-z,
          0-9.

   * (asterisk)
          this can represent any number of characters (including zero, in
          other words, zero or more characters). If you specified a "cd*"
          it would use "cda", "cdrom", "cdrecord" and anything that
          starts with "cd" also including "cd" itself. "m*l" could by
          mill, mull, ml, and anything that starts with an m and ends
          with an l.

   [ ] (square brackets)
          specifies a range. If you did m[a,o,u]m it can become: mam,
          mum, mom if you did: m[a-d]m it can become anything that starts
          and ends with m and has any character a to d in-between. For
          example, these would work: mam, mbm, mcm, mdm. This kind of
          wildcard specifies an "or" relationship (you only need one to
          match).

   { } (curly brackets)
          terms are separated by commas and each term must be the name of
          something or a wildcard. This wildcard will copy anything that
          matches either wildcard(s), or exact name(s) (an "or"
          relationship, one or the other).

          For example, this would be valid:

cp {*.doc,*.pdf} ~

          This will copy anything ending with .doc or .pdf to the users
          home directory. Note that spaces are not allowed after the
          commas (or anywhere else).

   [!]
          This construct is similar to the [ ] construct, except rather
          than matching any characters inside the brackets, it'll match
          any character, as long as it is not listed between the [ and ].
          This is a logical NOT. For example rm myfile[!9] will remove
          all myfiles* (ie. myfiles1, myfiles2 etc) but won't remove a
          file with the number 9 anywhere within it's name.

   \ (backslash)
          is used as an "escape" character, i.e. to protect a subsequent
          special character. Thus, "\\" searches for a backslash. Note
          you may need to use quotation marks and backslash(es).
     _________________________________________________________________

20.4.2. Regular Expressions

   Regular expressions are a type of globbing pattern used when working
   with text. They are used for any form of manipulation of multiple
   parts of text and by various programming languages that work with
   text. For more information on regular expressions refer to the manual
   page or try an online tutorial, for example IBM Developerworks using
   regular expressions. For the manual page type:

   Type:
   man 7 regex

   Note Regular expressions can be used by


   Regular Expressions are used by grep (and can be used) by find and
   many other programs.
   Tip Tip


   If your regular expressions don't seem to be working then you probably
   need to use single quotation marks over the sentence and then use
   backslashes on every single special character.

   . (dot)
          will match any single character, equivalent to ? (question
          mark) in standard wildcard expressions. Thus, "m.a" matches
          "mpa" and "mea" but not "ma" or "mppa".

   \ (backslash)
          is used as an "escape" character, i.e. to protect a subsequent
          special character. Thus, "\\" searches for a backslash. Note
          you may need to use quotation marks and backslash(es).

   .* (dot and asterisk)
          is used to match any string, equivalent to * in standard
          wildcards.

   * (asterisk)
          the proceeding item is to be matched zero or more times. ie. n*
          will match n, nn, nnnn, nnnnnnn but not na or any other
          character.

   ^ (caret)
          means "the beginning of the line". So "^a" means find a line
          starting with an "a".

   $ (dollar sign)
          means "the end of the line". So "a$" means find a line ending
          with an "a".

          Example: This command searches the file myfile for lines
          starting with an "s" and ending with an "n", and prints them to
          the standard output (screen):

cat myfile | grep '^s.*n$'

   [ ] (square brackets)
          specifies a range. If you did m[a,o,u]m it can become: mam,
          mum, mom if you did: m[a-d]m it can become anything that starts
          and ends with m and has any character a to d in-between. For
          example, these would work: mam, mbm, mcm, mdm. This kind of
          wildcard specifies an "or" relationship (you only need one to
          match).

   |
          This wildcard makes a logical OR relationship between
          wildcards. This way you can search for something or something
          else (possibly using two different regular expressions). You
          may need to add a '\' (backslash) before this command to work,
          because the shell may attempt to interpret this as a pipe.

   [^]
          This is the equivalent of [!] in standard wildcards. This
          performs a logical "not". This will match anything that is not
          listed within those square brackets. For example: rm myfile[^9]
          will remove all myfiles* (ie. myfiles1, myfiles2 etc) but won't
          remove a file with the number 9 anywhere within it's name.
     _________________________________________________________________

20.4.3. Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standard)

   This information has been taken from the grep info page with a tiny
   amount of editing, see [10] in the Bibliography for further
   information.
     * [:upper:] upper-case letters
     * [:lower:] lower-case letters
     * [:alpha:] alphabetic (letters) meaning upper+lower (both uppercase
       and lowercase letters)
     * [:digit:] numbers in decimal, 0 to 9
     * [:alnum:] alphanumeric meaning alpha+digits (any uppercase or
       lowercase letters or any decimal digits)
     * [:space:] whitespace meaning spaces, tabs, newlines and similar
     * [:graph:] graphically printable characters excluding space
     * [:print:] printable characters including space
     * [:punct:] punctuation characters meaning graphical characters
       minus alpha and digits
     * [:cntrl:] control characters meaning non-printable characters
     * [:xdigit:] characters that are hexadecimal digits.

   Note These are used with


   The above commands will work with most tools which work with text (for
   example: tr).

   For example (advanced example), this command scans the output of the
   dir command, and prints lines containing a capital letter followed by
   a digit:
   ls -l | grep '[[:upper:]][[:digit:]]'

   The command greps for [upper_case_letter][any_digit], meaning any
   uppercase letter followed by any digit. If you remove the [ ] (square
   brackets) in the middle it would look for an uppercase letter or a
   digit, because it would become [upper_case_letter any_digit]
     _________________________________________________________________

Appendix A. Appendix

A.1. Finding Packages/Tools

A.1.1. Finding more useful tools

   If you are looking to find more tools, the GNU project (GNU's Not
   Unix) maintains a directory, a website listing categorized links to
   various free-software tools (which they consider useful) called the
   GNU Directory.

   Also try sites such as Sweet Code which offer mailing lists of useful
   tools which they find.

   You may also try looking at the most highly rated, most active or most
   downloaded programs at SourceForge and FreshMeat.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.1.2. Finding a particular tool(s)

   Many of the tools listed in this guide are part of a package of tools,
   such as diffutils which contains the various tools used to find
   differences between files, such as diff, sdiff, diff3, cmp. Most small
   tools are bundled together in this fashion. Most major distribution's
   will offer a search function to help you search the packages by file,
   you can of course do this via the command line interface or a GUI.

   If you need to search the distribution's available packages via the
   command line, the method will vary depending on the distribution you
   are using, see the subsections below or consult your distribution's
   documentation (or of course the internet):
     _________________________________________________________________

A.1.2.1. Mandrake (urpm* commands, rpm based)

   To find where a particular file came from use urpmf.

   Command syntax:
   urpmf file_name

   The results are often overwhelming as this particular command will
   take a string and list every file of every package in it's database
   that contains the particular keyword (ie. both uninstalled and
   installed packages). To refine the results you may want to add a pipe
   to it and send it through grep -w file_name (the -w option will only
   show you only exact (whole word) matches). How you would do this is
   shown below:
   urpmf file_name | grep -w file_name

   For more information on the urpm* commands, please refer to the tip
   towards the end of this section: Section 20.1.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.1.2.2. Red Hat (rpm)

   To find which package a particular file came from use rpm with the -qf
   option.

   Command syntax:
   rpm -qf /path/to/the/file

   This will find which package the file came from. You need to use rpm
   -qf not with a keyword but with the location of the actual file. To
   find more information on the particular package listed use rpm with
   the -qi option.

   Command syntax:
   rpm -qi package_name

   Note that the package name is the name of the package without the
   .arch.rpm (often .i386.rpm) extension on the end.

   For more information on the usage of rpm, please refer to this section
   Section 20.1.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.1.2.3. Debian (deb)

   To find where a particular file came from use dpkg with the -S option.

   There are two ways to do this:
   dpkg -S file_name

   or:
   dpkg -S /path/to/file

   You may also like to try (if it's installed, it's generally a lot
   faster than the dpkg search):
   dlocate -S file_name

   For more informaiton on deb and dlocate please refer to the relevant
   manual pages and online sources of information.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.1.3. Finding package(s)

   Packages can be found via the internet utilizing sites such as:
     * RPMFind for RPM based packages.
     * Debian Package List for deb packages.
     * RPMSeek, this site intends to index Debian packages as well as
       RPM.
     * TuxFinder where you can search for deb, rpm, tgz, iso and even
       documentation.

   Also try the author's homepage and large sites such as FreshMeat and
   SourceForge.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.2. Further Reading

A.2.1. General Further Reading

   This guide is simply a short summary of some of the available tools of
   a GNU/Linux based distribution. If you find a particular command
   interesting and useful, you can look up the on-line manual, or/and
   info page to learn more about how to use this command or check the
   HOWTO's online at Linux Documentation Project.

   The manual/info pages will always be an up-to-date source of
   information on how to use the command. Also have a look at the
   documentation installed on your distribution, its normally located in
   /usr/share/doc.

   Check the references section of this document, Bibliography, for some
   links to useful resources which were used in the creation of this
   document.

   Of course if you are having trouble with a particular command try
   using a search engine such as Google or AllTheWeb, or search the
   usenet groups Google Groups. If you still can't find a solution, look
   for a mailing list which is related to the topic you are having
   trouble with, or try a forum which is related to the topic.

   Readers who would like another reference to commands may want to have
   at:
     * Commands from "Linux in a Nutshell 3rd Edition" as published by
       Orielly --- this document was not used in the creation of this
       guide, however it is a comprehensive guide to GNU/Linux Commands
       (it's an indexed listing). It lists and explains 379 commands
       taken from Linux in a Nutshell 3rd Edition.
     * The Linux Newbie Admin guide list of commands --- another list of
       commands from an excellent system administration guide for
       GNU/Linux.
     * Comptechdoc's Linux Command Quickreference Guide --- a good list
       of commands but only one line explanations of what they actually
       do...
     * SS64.com list of bash commands --- this page lists commands and
       links to their man pages online.

   If you wish to learn more about GNU/Linux on a variety of subjects
   also see the various online (free) tutorials published by IBM
   Developerworks.

   If you are looking for a general reference to everything GNU/Linux try
   the Rute User's Tutorial and Exposition. Or take a look at your
   distributions documentation, Debian maintains comprehensive
   documentation, debian documentation site.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.2.2. Specific Further reading

   The most obvious place to look for documentation is to find the
   homepage of the program. Although sometimes there are other sources of
   information such as the Linux Documentation Project or various online
   HOWTO's or similar guides. They are usually easily found using search
   engines. Try large sites such as (ibiblio) the publics library and
   digital archive or TuxFinder which can search for documentation.

   Below is a very short list of some further reading for a few of the
   more complex tools:
     * OpenSSH OpenSSH manual page
     * vim The Vim HOWTO
     * emacs The Emacs HOWTO
     * RPM RPM HOWTO
     * Samba Samba documentation site
     * ImageMagick ImageMagick command-line tools
     * BASH BASH reference manual
     * Bash scripting Advanced bash scripting guide
     * rsync rsync homepage
     _________________________________________________________________

A.2.2.1. The UNIX tools philosophy further reading

     * An article within the coreutils documentation (installed on nearly
       every GNU/Linux distro) provides further explanation of the UNIX
       tools philosophy. To access the article simply type:

info coreutils

       Then type / (slash; runs a search) then the string "toolbox"
       (toolbox is the string to be searched for) then hit enter (follow
       hyperlink) and then go down to the "Toolbox introduction" section
       and hit enter. This will give you access to the article.
     * Other articles online include an: Orielly article on the UNIX
       tools philosophy.
     * A listing of important qualities of the philosophy.
     * Linux Exposed The Unix Philosophy Explained
     * Or an entire book which is considered the authoritative guide
       toward understanding the philosophy behind how the UNIX system was
       built. The book is called "The Unix Philosophy" ISBN: 1555581234.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.2.3. Online Manual And Info Pages

   While manual pages and info pages are usually installed with the
   program itself they are also available online if you need them, the
   listed links are usually listed by category or by the man page
   sections.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.2.3.1. Online Manual Page Websites:

     * Manual Page Resource Links (from the Linux Documentation Project)
     * A RedHat Based Searchable Index
     * Another Searchable Index
     * Another Manual Page Site (searchable)
     _________________________________________________________________

A.2.3.2. Downloadable Manual Pages:

     * Downloadable Man Pages hosted by Ibiblio
     _________________________________________________________________

A.2.3.3. Online Info Page Website:

     * GNU Manual's
     _________________________________________________________________

A.3. GNU Free Documentation License

   GNU Free Documentation License

   Version 1.1, March 2000

   Copyright (C) 2000 Free Software Foundation, Inc. 59 Temple Place,
   Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA Everyone is permitted to copy and
   distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it
   is not allowed.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.3.1. PREAMBLE

   The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other
   written document "free" in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone
   the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without
   modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily,
   this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get
   credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for
   modifications made by others.

   This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative
   works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It
   complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft
   license designed for free software.

   We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free
   software, because free software needs free documentation: a free
   program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the
   software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals; it
   can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or
   whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License
   principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.3.2. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS

   This License applies to any manual or other work that contains a
   notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed
   under the terms of this License. The "Document", below, refers to any
   such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is
   addressed as "you".

   A "Modified Version" of the Document means any work containing the
   Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with
   modifications and/or translated into another language.

   A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a front-matter section of
   the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the
   publishers or authors of the Document to the Document's overall
   subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall
   directly within that overall subject. (For example, if the Document is
   in part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain
   any mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of historical
   connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal,
   commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding
   them.

   The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose titles
   are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice
   that says that the Document is released under this License.

   The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text that are listed,
   as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that
   the Document is released under this License.

   A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy,
   represented in a format whose specification is available to the
   general public, whose contents can be viewed and edited directly and
   straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of
   pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available
   drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or
   for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input
   to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file
   format whose markup has been designed to thwart or discourage
   subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent. A copy that is
   not "Transparent" is called "Opaque".

   Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain
   ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML
   or XML using a publicly available DTD, and standard-conforming simple
   HTML designed for human modification. Opaque formats include
   PostScript, PDF, proprietary formats that can be read and edited only
   by proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or
   processing tools are not generally available, and the
   machine-generated HTML produced by some word processors for output
   purposes only.

   The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the title page itself,
   plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material
   this License requires to appear in the title page. For works in
   formats which do not have any title page as such, "Title Page" means
   the text near the most prominent appearance of the work's title,
   preceding the beginning of the body of the text.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.3.3. VERBATIM COPYING

   You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either
   commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the
   copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies
   to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no
   other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use
   technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further
   copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept
   compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough
   number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.

   You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and
   you may publicly display copies.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.3.4. COPYING IN QUANTITY

   If you publish printed copies of the Document numbering more than 100,
   and the Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must
   enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all
   these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and
   Back-Cover Texts on the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and
   legibly identify you as the publisher of these copies. The front cover
   must present the full title with all words of the title equally
   prominent and visible. You may add other material on the covers in
   addition. Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they
   preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can
   be treated as verbatim copying in other respects.

   If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit
   legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit
   reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent
   pages.

   If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering
   more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent
   copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy
   a publicly-accessible computer-network location containing a complete
   Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material, which the
   general network-using public has access to download anonymously at no
   charge using public-standard network protocols. If you use the latter
   option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin
   distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this
   Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location
   until at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque
   copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that edition to
   the public.

   It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the
   Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to
   give them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the
   Document.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.3.5. MODIFICATIONS

   You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under
   the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release
   the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified
   Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution
   and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy
   of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:

   A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct
   from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions (which
   should, if there were any, be listed in the History section of the
   Document). You may use the same title as a previous version if the
   original publisher of that version gives permission.

   B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities
   responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified
   Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the
   Document (all of its principal authors, if it has less than five).

   C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified
   Version, as the publisher.

   D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.

   E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent
   to the other copyright notices.

   F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice
   giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the
   terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.

   G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant
   Sections and required Cover Texts given in the Document's license
   notice.

   H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.

   I. Preserve the section entitled "History", and its title, and add to
   it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and
   publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page. If there
   is no section entitled "History" in the Document, create one stating
   the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as given on
   its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as
   stated in the previous sentence.

   J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for
   public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the
   network locations given in the Document for previous versions it was
   based on. These may be placed in the "History" section. You may omit a
   network location for a work that was published at least four years
   before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the
   version it refers to gives permission.

   K. In any section entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications",
   preserve the section's title, and preserve in the section all the
   substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or
   dedications given therein.

   L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in
   their text and in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are
   not considered part of the section titles.

   M. Delete any section entitled "Endorsements". Such a section may not
   be included in the Modified Version.

   N. Do not retitle any existing section as "Endorsements" or to
   conflict in title with any Invariant Section.

   If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or
   appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material
   copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all
   of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the
   list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice.
   These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.

   You may add a section entitled "Endorsements", provided it contains
   nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various
   parties--for example, statements of peer review or that the text has
   been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a
   standard.

   You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a
   passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list
   of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of
   Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or
   through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already
   includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or
   by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of,
   you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit
   permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.

   The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License
   give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or
   imply endorsement of any Modified Version.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.3.6. COMBINING DOCUMENTS

   You may combine the Document with other documents released under this
   License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified
   versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the
   Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and
   list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its
   license notice.

   The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
   multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single
   copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but
   different contents, make the title of each such section unique by
   adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original
   author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number.
   Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of
   Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.

   In the combination, you must combine any sections entitled "History"
   in the various original documents, forming one section entitled
   "History"; likewise combine any sections entitled "Acknowledgements",
   and any sections entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections
   entitled "Endorsements."
     _________________________________________________________________

A.3.7. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS

   You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other
   documents released under this License, and replace the individual
   copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy
   that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules
   of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all
   other respects.

   You may extract a single document from such a collection, and
   distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a
   copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow this
   License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that
   document.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.3.8. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS

   A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate
   and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or
   distribution medium, does not as a whole count as a Modified Version
   of the Document, provided no compilation copyright is claimed for the
   compilation. Such a compilation is called an "aggregate", and this
   License does not apply to the other self-contained works thus compiled
   with the Document, on account of their being thus compiled, if they
   are not themselves derivative works of the Document.

   If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these
   copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one quarter
   of the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on
   covers that surround only the Document within the aggregate. Otherwise
   they must appear on covers around the whole aggregate.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.3.9. TRANSLATION

   Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may
   distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4.
   Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special
   permission from their copyright holders, but you may include
   translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the
   original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a
   translation of this License provided that you also include the
   original English version of this License. In case of a disagreement
   between the translation and the original English version of this
   License, the original English version will prevail.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.3.10. TERMINATION

   You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document
   except as expressly provided for under this License. Any other attempt
   to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and
   will automatically terminate your rights under this License. However,
   parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this
   License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such
   parties remain in full compliance.
     _________________________________________________________________

A.3.11. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

   The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the
   GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions
   will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in
   detail to address new problems or concerns. See Copyleft.

   Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number.
   If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this
   License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of
   following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or
   of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the
   Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version
   number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not
   as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.
     _________________________________________________________________

Bibliography

   (1) Tony Steidler-Dennison, Lockergnome Penguin Shell Series,
   Lockergnome.

   Responsible for many of the commands listed in this document. In
   particular Lockergnome inspired much of the wildcards section: Section
   20.4

   (2) Brandon Rhodes, Linux Network Commands Page.

   Responsible for parts of the network commands section: Chapter 13

   (3) Michael Stutz, Linux Cookbook Homepage, No Starch Press.

   Many of these commands have come from the Linux Cookbook (version
   1.2). I highly recommend this book to any novice or intermediate
   GNU/Linux user, have a look at it online, and then of course buy it
   :).

   (4) Michael Jordan, Linux Online Classroom, Linux Online.

   Some very small sections of this document were taken from the
   Beginner's course on the Linux Online Website.

   (5) man and info pages.

   The man and info pages of various tools listed in this document have
   been used as a resource to assist in the creation of this document.
   They are a useful resource of up-to-date information on a program and
   should be consulted when you require information about a particular
   tool.

   (6) Focus On Unix -- Unix.about.com.

   Some of the tutorials under the power commands section of the
   unix.about.com site were used in the construction of this guide. In
   particular parts of the xargs command: Chapter 8 and parts of the cut
   command: Section 11.4 were used from their tutorials.

   (7) MandrakeSoft Command Line Manual, MandrakeSoft.

   The Command Line Manual developed for Mandake Linux 9.0 was used in
   the creation of this document. A small section (in regard to
   command-line completion) was used from this document. If you are
   running mandrake you will most likely find this guide here.

   (8) MandrakeSoft Starter Guide, MandrakeSoft.

   The MandrakeSoft Starter Guide, a guide developed for Mandake Linux
   9.0 was used in the creation of this document. A small section (in
   regard to how to recover from a system freeze) was used from this
   document. If you are running a mandrake system you will most likely
   find the document here.

   (9) Hrvoje Niksic, Wget Manual page, Free Software Foundation.

   A section of the wget manual page was used in this guide, from this
   page, Wget Manual page. In particular relating to downloading multiple
   files while using the http protocol.

   (10) Grep, Free Software Foundation.

   Both wildcards subsections are based off the grep manual and info
   pages. The Useful Categories of Characters (as defined from the POSIX
   standard) was taken from the grep info page.

   (11) Marc Ewing, Jeff Johnson, and Erik Troan, RPM Manual Page, Red
   Hat.

   A small section of the RPM manual page was used in the creation of the
   RPM verifying subsection, without any kind of editing.

   (12) Markku Rossi, Enscript Manual Page, Free Software Foundation.

   The examples for enscript are based off those shown in the enscript
   manual page.

   (13) Paul Vixie, Cron Manual Page, 4th Berkeley Distribution.

   The information from the crontab section (below and including the
   table) was taken (unedited, but with small additions) from the crontab
   manual pages. Type man 1 crontab and man 5 crontab to access the 2
   different manual pages.

   (14) IBM Developerworks.

   Some parts of the IBM Developerworks tutorials have been used in the
   creation of this document. IBM Developerworks frequently publishes new
   tutorials on a variety of subjects, visit the IBM Developerworks Linux
   site (see link above) for more information on their GNU/Linux
   tutorials.

   (15) Suso Banderas, Num-utils homepage.

   The num-utils manual pages were used in the creation of the maths
   section. In particular all the description of the num-utils tools are
   based off the manual pages on the num-utils homepage.

   (16) Carla Schroder, Archive of the LinuxChix posting.

   This particular LinuxChix posting was made through a mailing list
   discussion about cron under the TechTalk mailing list. The posters
   homepage is http://www.tuxcomputing.com.

   (17) Joe Barr, CLI for noobies: import, display, mogrify.

   This particular article by Joe Barr was used in the description of the
   mogrify tool in particular the example on creating thumbnails.

   (18) Kyle Rankin, Please, For the Love of All That's Recoverable,
   Shred Your Hard Drive!.

   This particular article by Kyle Rankin was used (only a paragraph) for
   information on the shred command.
     _________________________________________________________________

Index

Symbols

   !, General Shell Tips
   $, General Shell Tips, Regular Expressions
   %cpu, Controlling Processes
   %mem, Controlling Processes
   &&, Performing more than one command
   &>, Usage
   >, Usage
   >>, Usage
   <, Usage
   <<, Usage
   *, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions
   -d, Date/Time/Calendars, Text manipulation tools, Text
          Conversion/Filter Tools

   -e, General Shell Tips, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   -exec, Finding information about the system
   -f, Help, Text Viewing Tools , Text manipulation tools
   -g, Text manipulation tools
   -h, Finding information about the system
   -HUP, Controlling Processes
   -i, General Shell Tips, Controlling Processes
   -m, Finding information about the system
   -n, Text Viewing Tools , Text manipulation tools
   -nc, Internet Specific Commands
   -p, Controlling Processes
   -path, Finding files
   -prune, Finding files
   -R, Working with files and folders, Shutting Down/Rebooting the
          System, Text manipulation tools, Remote Administration Related,
          File Permissions

   -s, Working with files and folders
   -t, Finding information about the system, Text manipulation tools,
          Compression

   -u, Text manipulation tools, Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background

   -v, Controlling Processes, RPM: Redhat Package Management System
   -verbose, Graphics tools (command line based)
   -w, Text Information Tools
   -x, General Shell Tips, Text manipulation tools
   -y, Date/Time/Calendars
   ., Regular Expressions
   .*, Regular Expressions
   .bz, Compression
   .doc, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   .gz, Compression
   .h, Finding information about the system, Conversion tools,
          Mathematical tools

   .pdf, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   192.168.0.1, Network Configuration
   192.168.0.2, Network Configuration
   1MB, Finding information about the system
   2>, Usage
   ;, Performing more than one command
   ?, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   @, General Shell Tips
   bit, sticky, File Permissions
   sticky, File Permissions
   [ ], Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions
   [!], Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   [:alnum:],
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   [:alpha:],
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   [:cntrl:],
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   [:digit:],
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   [:graph:],
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   [:lower:],
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   [:print:],
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   [:punct:],
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   [:space:],
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   [:upper:],
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   [:xdigit:],
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   [^], Regular Expressions
   \, General Shell Tips, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular
          Expressions

   ^, Regular Expressions
   { }, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   |, Usage, Regular Expressions
   ||, Performing more than one command
   ~, General Shell Tips
     _________________________________________________________________

A

   a-z, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   abilities, Virtual Terminals and screen
   ability, Graphics tools (command line based)
   able, Contributors , Moving around the filesystem, Working with files
          and folders, Network Configuration , Remote Administration
          Related, Graphics tools (command line based)

   absolute, Moving around the filesystem
   abused, Internet Specific Commands
   accept, Disclaimer
   accepted, Disclaimer
   Access, Conventions used in this guide, The command-line history,
          Help, Mounting and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive
          Partitions), Shutting Down/Rebooting the System, Internet
          Specific Commands, File Permissions, Miscellaneous

   accessed, File Permissions
   accomplish, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   action, Text manipulation tools
   actions, Wildcards
   activating, Network Configuration
   active, Network Commands
   actual, The command-line history
   add, Availability of sources, General Shell Tips, Finding files, Text
          manipulation tools, Conversion tools, Mathematical tools,
          Network Configuration , Internet Specific Commands, Remote
          Administration Related, Security, File Permissions, Scheduling
          Commands to run in the background, Regular Expressions

   adding, Contributors
   addition, Network Configuration
   additional, Controlling Processes
   address, Network Configuration , Internet Specific Commands
   addressed, Contributors
   adjust, Working with files and folders
   administration, Managing users
   administrative, Controlling Processes
   administrator, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System
   administrators, Who would want to read this guide?
   admonitions, Conventions used in this guide
   advanced, Finding files, Working with files and folders, Finding
          information about the system, Text Editors, Text manipulation
          tools, Network Commands, Internet Specific Commands, rsync,
          Working with MS-DOS files

   advancement, Feedback
   advantage, Working with files and folders
   advice, Feedback, Contributors
   affect, Finding Text Within Files
   algorithm, rsync
   alias, General Shell Tips
   aliases, General Shell Tips, Moving around the filesystem
   allow, General Shell Tips, Controlling Processes, Text manipulation
          tools

   allowed, Contributors , Scheduling Commands to run in the background,
          Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)

   allows, General Shell Tips, Virtual Terminals and screen, Usage,
          Controlling services, Text manipulation tools, Remote
          Administration Related

   alpha,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standar
          d)

   alphabetic,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   alphabetical, Text manipulation tools
   alphabetically, Text manipulation tools
   alphanumeric,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   alternative, General Shell Tips, Usage, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools,
          Scheduling Commands to run in the background, Wildcards

   alternatives, Some basic Security Tools
   American, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   amount, Working with files and folders, Finding information about the
          system, Text manipulation tools,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   analyze, Miscellaneous
   AND, Performing more than one command
   Anderson, License
   Anderson, Gareth, Feedback
   antiword, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   append, Moving around the filesystem, Finding information about the
          system, File Permissions

   appendix, Introduction, Who would want to read this guide?
   application, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Working with files and folders

   applications, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   apply, Controlling Processes
   apropos, Help
   archive, Internet Specific Commands, Archiving Files, Compression
   archived, tar (tape archiver)
   archives, Compression
   archiving, Archiving Files
   area, Finding information about partitions, Miscellaneous
   areas, Working with files and folders
   argument, Working with files and folders, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools,
          Text Information Tools, Text manipulation tools, Internet
          Specific Commands, Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background, Miscellaneous

   arguments, The command-line history, Working with files and folders
   arranged, Graphics tools (command line based)
   arrow, The command-line history
   art, Conversion tools
   article, Contributors
   ASCII, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Moving around the filesystem,
          Working with files and folders, Text Conversion/Filter Tools,
          Conversion tools

   assign, Controlling Processes
   assist, Working with files and folders, Security
   assistance, Resources used to create this document
   associated, Help
   asterisk, Scheduling Commands to run in the background, Standard
          Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions

   at, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   at, sign, General Shell Tips
   atq, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   atrm, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   Attach, Mounting and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions)
   attempt, Introduction, General Shell Tips, The command-line history,
          Regular Expressions

   attempting, Controlling Processes
   attempts, Contributors , Working with files and folders, Network
          Commands

   attribute, File Permissions
   attributes, File Permissions
   audible, General Shell Tips
   author, Feedback, Disclaimer
   authored, Who would want to read this guide?, Mass Rename/copy/link
          Tools, Security

   authors, Who would want to read this guide?
   automated, Some basic Security Tools, Checking the Hard Disk for
          errors

   automates, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   automatic, General Shell Tips
   automatically, General Shell Tips, Working with files and folders,
          Working with MS-DOS files

   available, Introduction, Formats, Who would want to read this guide?,
          Who would not want to read this guide?, Availability of
          sources, Finding information about the system, Controlling
          Processes, Controlling services, Users/Groups, Network
          Commands, Working with MS-DOS files

   avoid, Mini-Guides
     _________________________________________________________________

B

   Back-Cover, License
   background, Controlling Processes, Controlling services
   Backgrounds, Controlling Processes
   backslash, General Shell Tips, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns),
          Regular Expressions

   bandwidth, rsync
   bash, Introduction, General Shell Tips, Finding files, Mass
          Rename/copy/link Tools, Internet Specific Commands, Specific
          Further reading

   bash scripting, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Specific Further reading
   Basic, Finding files, Network Commands, Security, Archiving Files
   basically, Command Substitution
   batch, Graphics tools (command line based)
   beep, General Shell Tips
   beginners, Who would want to read this guide?
   beginning, Regular Expressions
   bell, General Shell Tips
   bg, Controlling Processes
   binary, Finding files, Working with files and folders, Text
          Information Tools

   bit, Moving around the filesystem, Mathematical tools, File
          Permissions

   bitmap, Graphics tools (command line based)
   block, Working with files and folders
   blocks, File Permissions, Compression, Working with MS-DOS files
   bmp, Working with files and folders
   book, Who would want to read this guide?, Availability of sources
   bookmarks.html, Internet Specific Commands
   boot, Security
   bootdisks, Duplicating disks
   boots, Security
   bootup, Finding information about the system
   Bourne-Again-SHell, Introduction
   brackets, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   brackets, curly, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   brackets, square, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular
          Expressions

   brands, Disclaimer
   break, Controlling Processes
   broad-casted, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System
   broken, Working with files and folders
   buffer, Finding information about the system
   built, Graphics tools (command line based)
   built-in, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools
   bunch, Compression
   burning, Duplicating disks
   bytes, Working with files and folders, Text Information Tools
   bzgrep, Text Viewing Tools
   bzip2, Text Viewing Tools , tar (tape archiver), Compression
   bzip2recover, Compression
   bzless, Text Viewing Tools
   bzme, Compression
     _________________________________________________________________

C

   cached, Finding information about the system
   cal, Date/Time/Calendars
   calculator, Mathematical tools
   calendar, Date/Time/Calendars
   calls, Finding Text Within Files
   capital, Text manipulation tools,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   capture, Graphics tools (command line based)
   captures, Network Commands
   careful, Working with files and folders, File Permissions
   caret, Regular Expressions
   carriage, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   cat, Text manipulation tools
   catch, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   cause, General Shell Tips, Moving around the filesystem, Controlling
          Processes, Internet Specific Commands

   causes, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   caution, Disclaimer
   cd, General Shell Tips, Moving around the filesystem, Duplicating
          disks

   cdrecord, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   cdrom, Finding information about partitions, Controlling the system,
          Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)

   cdrom-drive, Controlling the system
   centimeters, Mathematical tools
   cetera, General Shell Tips, Finding information about the system,
          Controlling Processes

   Change, Moving around the filesystem, Working with files and folders,
          Finding information about the system, Date/Time/Calendars,
          Controlling Processes, Managing users, Users/Groups, Text
          manipulation tools, Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Network
          Configuration , Internet Specific Commands, File Permissions,
          Graphics tools (command line based)

   character, General Shell Tips, Text manipulation tools, Scheduling
          Commands to run in the background, Standard Wildcards (globbing
          patterns), Regular Expressions

   characters, Finding files, Text manipulation tools, Text
          Conversion/Filter Tools, Some basic Security Tools, RPM: Redhat
          Package Management System, Standard Wildcards (globbing
          patterns),
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   chat, Text Editors
   chattr, Working with files and folders, File Permissions
   chcase, Text manipulation tools, Miscellaneous
   check, Who would want to read this guide?, Availability of sources,
          Resources used to create this document , Text manipulation
          tools, Internet Specific Commands, Security, Some basic
          Security Tools, Working with MS-DOS files, RPM: Redhat Package
          Management System, Checking the Hard Disk for errors

   checker, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   checking, Some basic Security Tools, RPM: Redhat Package Management
          System, Checking the Hard Disk for errors

   chfn, Users/Groups
   chmod, Security, File Permissions
   chown, File Permissions
   chronological, Contributors
   chsh, Users/Groups
   clarity, Conventions used in this guide
   Classroom, Duplicating disks
   CLI, Who would want to read this guide?
   click, Graphics tools (command line based)
   closed, Network Commands
   clusters, Working with MS-DOS files
   cmp, Text Information Tools
   Code, Conventions used in this guide, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   colon, Text Viewing Tools , Text manipulation tools
   colour, Conversion tools, Graphics tools (command line based)
   colours, Graphics tools (command line based)
   column, Text manipulation tools
   columns, Contributors , Text Information Tools, Text manipulation
          tools

   combination, Conventions used in this guide
   combinations, Conventions used in this guide, Shell Tips
   combine, Text Viewing Tools
   combined, General Shell Tips
   Combines, Text Viewing Tools
   comm, Text Information Tools
   command, Who would want to read this guide?, Who would not want to
          read this guide?, Conventions used in this guide, The Unix
          Tools Philosophy, Shell Tips, General Shell Tips, The
          command-line history, Help, Directing Input/Output, Usage,
          Command Substitution, Performing more than one command, Moving
          around the filesystem, Finding files, Working with files and
          folders, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Finding information about
          the system, Date/Time/Calendars, Controlling the system,
          Mounting and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions),
          Shutting Down/Rebooting the System, Controlling Processes,
          Users/Groups, Text Viewing Tools , Text Information Tools, Text
          manipulation tools, Finding Text Within Files, Network
          Commands, Network Configuration , Internet Specific Commands,
          Remote Administration Related, Security, Some basic Security
          Tools, File Permissions, tar (tape archiver), rsync,
          Compression, Graphics tools (command line based), Working with
          MS-DOS files, Scheduling Commands to run in the background,
          Mini-Guides, Duplicating disks, Standard Wildcards (globbing
          patterns), Regular Expressions,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   command substitution, Command Substitution
   command, more than one, Performing more than one command
   Command-Line, Resources used to create this document , Virtual
          Terminals and screen, Remote Administration Related, Graphics
          tools (command line based)

   command-line-based, Introduction
   command-lists, General Further Reading
   command1, Performing more than one command, Finding information about
          the system

   command2, Performing more than one command, Finding information about
          the system

   commandline, Who would want to read this guide?, General Shell Tips
   commandName, The command-line history
   commands, Who would want to read this guide?, Who would not want to
          read this guide?, Conventions used in this guide, Contributors
          , General Shell Tips, The command-line history, Other Key
          combinations, Help, Usage, Working with the file-system, Mass
          Rename/copy/link Tools, Finding information about the system,
          Controlling Processes, Users/Groups, Text Viewing Tools , Text
          manipulation tools, Network Configuration , Remote
          Administration Related, Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background, Miscellaneous, Wildcards

   commas, Text manipulation tools, Mathematical tools, Scheduling
          Commands to run in the background, Standard Wildcards (globbing
          patterns)

   Commmand, Finding files
   common, Text Information Tools, Text manipulation tools, Compression,
          Scheduling Commands to run in the background

   commonly, General Shell Tips
   compares, Text Information Tools
   complete, Introduction, Who would not want to read this guide?,
          General Shell Tips

   completing, General Shell Tips
   Completion, General Shell Tips
   completions, General Shell Tips
   complex, Introduction, The Unix Tools Philosophy, General Shell Tips,
          Text Viewing Tools , Text manipulation tools, Miscellaneous

   complicated, Network Commands
   composite, Graphics tools (command line based)
   comprehensive, Who would want to read this guide?, Security
   compress, Compression
   compressed, Text Viewing Tools , Compression
   compression, Compression
   Comptechdoc's Linux Command Quickreference, General Further Reading
   computer, Who would want to read this guide?, Finding information
          about the system, Mounting and Unmounting
          (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions), Shutting Down/Rebooting
          the System, Network Commands, Remote Administration Related,
          Scheduling Commands to run in the background

   computers, Network Commands, Remote Administration Related
   concatenate, Usage
   Concatenates, Usage, Text manipulation tools
   concepts, Disclaimer, Mini-Guides
   configuration, Network Configuration
   configure, Network Configuration
   confirm, General Shell Tips
   confusing, Finding information about the system
   conjunction, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Scheduling Commands to run in
          the background

   connect, Remote Administration Related
   connected, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Finding information about
          partitions

   consistency, Contributors
   console, The command-line history, Security
   contact, Internet Specific Commands
   content, Disclaimer
   contents, Disclaimer, Usage, Finding information about the system,
          Conversion tools, Network Commands, File Permissions,
          Compression, Scheduling Commands to run in the background

   continuous, Text Viewing Tools
   contribution, Contributors
   contributions, Contributors
   contributors, Resources used to create this document
   Control, Conventions used in this guide, Controlling the system,
          Controlling services,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   controlling, Controlling the system, Controlling Processes
   controls, Security
   conventions, Conventions used in this guide
   conversion, Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Mathematical tools
   convert, Resources used to create this document , Contributors ,
          Finding information about the system, Text manipulation tools,
          Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Mathematical tools, Compression,
          Graphics tools (command line based)

   converts, Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Conversion tools
   Cookbook, Who would want to read this guide?
   copies, Working with files and folders, Remote Administration Related,
          rsync

   copy, License, General Shell Tips, Finding files, Working with files
          and folders, Remote Administration Related, rsync, Working with
          MS-DOS files, Miscellaneous, Standard Wildcards (globbing
          patterns)

   copying, General Shell Tips, Working with files and folders
   Copyright, License
   copyrights, Disclaimer
   core, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   coreutils, The UNIX tools philosophy further reading
   correct, Contributors , Controlling Processes, Mathematical tools,
          Some basic Security Tools, Compression, Graphics tools (command
          line based)

   correctly, Internet Specific Commands
   cost, Compression
   count, Working with files and folders, Text Information Tools, Text
          manipulation tools

   cp, Working with files and folders
   CPU, Finding information about the system, Controlling Processes
   crackers, Internet Specific Commands
   creation, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   criteria, Miscellaneous
   critical, Controlling services
   criticism, Feedback, Contributors
   criticisms, Contributors
   cron, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   crontab, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   cryptic, RPM: Redhat Package Management System
   CSS, Contributors
   CTRL-ALT-DEL, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System
   CTRL-ALT-F*, Virtual Terminals and screen
   CTRL-C, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System, Controlling Processes,
          Text Viewing Tools , Network Commands

   CTRL-D, General Shell Tips, Usage, Managing users, Mathematical tools,
          Scheduling Commands to run in the background

   CTRL-K, Other Key combinations
   CTRL-R, The command-line history
   CTRL-W, Other Key combinations
   CTRL-X-$, General Shell Tips
   CTRL-X-Y, General Shell Tips
   CTRL-Z, Conventions used in this guide, Controlling Processes
   curl, Internet Specific Commands
   current, Availability of sources, Conventions used in this guide,
          General Shell Tips, Moving around the filesystem, Working with
          files and folders, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Finding
          information about the system, Date/Time/Calendars, Mounting and
          Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions), Controlling
          Processes, Controlling services, Text manipulation tools,
          Finding Text Within Files, Network Configuration , Internet
          Specific Commands, Remote Administration Related, File
          Permissions, Compression, Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background, Miscellaneous

   customisable, Controlling Processes
   customisation, Text manipulation tools
   customisations, Contributors
   customise, Finding files, Date/Time/Calendars, Conversion tools,
          Miscellaneous

   cut, Text manipulation tools
     _________________________________________________________________

D

   daemon, Controlling services, Remote Administration Related,
          Scheduling Commands to run in the background

   Daemons, Controlling services
   damage, Disclaimer, Internet Specific Commands
   damaged, Compression
   data, Working with files and folders, Controlling Processes, File
          Permissions, RPM: Redhat Package Management System

   database, Graphics tools (command line based)
   databases, Internet Specific Commands
   date, Moving around the filesystem, Working with files and folders,
          Date/Time/Calendars

   dates, tar (tape archiver)
   Dave Wreski, Security
   day, Date/Time/Calendars, Scheduling Commands to run in the background

   days, Date/Time/Calendars
   dd, Working with files and folders, Date/Time/Calendars, Duplicating
          disks

   deactivating, Network Configuration
   deb, Debian (deb)
   Debian documentation, General Further Reading
   debugging, Finding information about the system
   decending, Moving around the filesystem
   decimal, Mathematical tools,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   decompress, Compression
   default, The command-line history, Usage, Moving around the
          filesystem, Working with files and folders, Controlling
          Processes, Controlling services, Text manipulation tools,
          Network Configuration , Security, tar (tape archiver), Graphics
          tools (command line based), Standard Wildcards (globbing
          patterns)

   definitions, Concept Definitions
   delete, General Shell Tips, Working with files and folders, Text
          Conversion/Filter Tools, File Permissions, Scheduling Commands
          to run in the background

   deleted, Working with files and folders, File Permissions
   delimiter, Text manipulation tools
   dependent, Moving around the filesystem
   Depending, Moving around the filesystem
   depth, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Text Related Tools, Internet
          Specific Commands, Mini-Guides

   describe, Security
   described, Text Viewing Tools
   describes, Mini-Guides
   description, Introduction, Help
   descriptions, Mini-Guides
   designed, Who would want to read this guide?, The Unix Tools
          Philosophy, Usage, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System,
          Mathematical tools, Internet Specific Commands, Security, Some
          basic Security Tools, Compression

   destination, Working with files and folders, Network Commands
   destroy, Working with files and folders, Managing users
   detail, Introduction, Controlling Processes
   detailed, Introduction, Who would want to read this guide?, Who would
          not want to read this guide?, Contributors , Help, Working with
          files and folders, Finding information about the system,
          Compression, Graphics tools (command line based)

   details, Help, Concept Definitions, Moving around the filesystem,
          Finding files, Controlling the system, Controlling Processes,
          Internet Specific Commands, Remote Administration Related,
          Working with MS-DOS files, Duplicating disks

   develop, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools
   device, Controlling the system, Mounting and Unmounting
          (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions), Network Configuration ,
          RPM: Redhat Package Management System

   devices, Working with files and folders, Controlling the system
   df, Finding information about the system, Finding information about
          partitions

   dictionary, Internet Specific Commands
   diff, Text Information Tools
   diff3, Text Information Tools
   difference, Concept Definitions, Text Information Tools, Text
          Conversion/Filter Tools, Network Commands

   differences, rsync
   different, Who would want to read this guide?, The Unix Tools
          Philosophy, Finding files, Working with files and folders, Mass
          Rename/copy/link Tools, Finding information about the system,
          Managing users, Text Editors, Text Viewing Tools , Text
          Information Tools, Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Conversion
          tools, Finding Text Within Files, Mathematical tools, Network
          Commands, Remote Administration Related, File Permissions,
          Graphics tools (command line based), Wildcards, Regular
          Expressions

   diffutils, Finding a particular tool(s)
   dig, Internet Specific Commands
   digit, Text manipulation tools,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   digits, Working with files and folders,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   dir,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standard)

   dir1, Finding information about the system
   dir2, Finding information about the system
   directories, Moving around the filesystem, Finding files, Working with
          files and folders, Remote Administration Related, File
          Permissions

   directory, General Shell Tips, Moving around the filesystem, Finding
          files, Working with files and folders, Mass Rename/copy/link
          Tools, Finding information about the system, Finding
          information about partitions, Controlling services, Text
          manipulation tools, Finding Text Within Files, Internet
          Specific Commands, Remote Administration Related, File
          Permissions, Compression, Miscellaneous, Standard Wildcards
          (globbing patterns)

   disable, General Shell Tips
   disabled, Security
   disclaimer, Legal
   discuss, Contributors
   disk, Finding files, Working with files and folders, Finding
          information about partitions, File Permissions, Working with
          MS-DOS files, Checking the Hard Disk for errors, Duplicating
          disks

   disks, Working with files and folders, Finding information about
          partitions, Working with MS-DOS files, Duplicating disks

   display, Working with files and folders, Finding information about the
          system, Date/Time/Calendars, Controlling Processes, Text
          Viewing Tools , Text manipulation tools, Conversion tools,
          Finding Text Within Files, Network Commands, Network
          Configuration , Graphics tools (command line based)

   distinct, Command Substitution
   distribute, License
   distributions, Finding information about partitions, Security
   divide, Working with files and folders
   dlocate, Debian (deb)
   dmesg, Finding information about the system
   DNS, Network Commands, Internet Specific Commands
   DocBook, Resources used to create this document
   document, Introduction, Formats, Who would want to read this guide?,
          Who would not want to read this guide?, Availability of
          sources, Conventions used in this guide, Resources used to
          create this document , Contributors , Disclaimer, License,
          Help, Text Viewing Tools , Mini-Guides

   documentation, Virtual Terminals and screen, Help, Finding information
          about partitions, Network Commands, Remote Administration
          Related, File Permissions, rsync, Working with MS-DOS files

   documents, Contributors , Disclaimer, Text Viewing Tools , Text
          Conversion/Filter Tools

   dollar sign, General Shell Tips, Regular Expressions
   Domain, Internet Specific Commands
   Dos-style, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   dos2unix, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   dosfsck, Working with MS-DOS files
   dot, Moving around the filesystem, Regular Expressions
   dot asterisk, Regular Expressions
   dots, Moving around the filesystem
   double, Help
   download, Internet Specific Commands
   downloadable, Availability of sources
   downloaded, Internet Specific Commands
   downloader, Internet Specific Commands
   downloading, Internet Specific Commands, Some basic Security Tools
   downloads, Internet Specific Commands
   downwards, Moving around the filesystem
   dozens, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   dpkg, Debian (deb)
   drive, Working with files and folders, Finding information about
          partitions, Mounting and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive
          Partitions)

   drives, Finding information about partitions, Controlling the system
   du, Working with files and folders
   duplicate, Text manipulation tools, Duplicating disks
   duplication, Mini-Guides
     _________________________________________________________________

E

   echo, General Shell Tips, Finding information about the system,
          Scheduling Commands to run in the background

   edit, The command-line history, Users/Groups, Internet Specific
          Commands, Security, Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background

   editing, Users/Groups, Graphics tools (command line based), Scheduling
          Commands to run in the background,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   editor, Text Editors
   editors, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Text Related Tools, Text Editors,
          Text Conversion/Filter Tools

   effects, Graphics tools (command line based)
   efficient, Who would want to read this guide?
   eight, RPM: Redhat Package Management System
   eject, Controlling the system
   emacs, The command-line history, Text Editors, Specific Further
          reading

   email, Feedback
   emerged, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   emphasize, Conventions used in this guide
   emphasized, Conventions used in this guide
   empty, Working with files and folders
   enable, Conventions used in this guide
   encoding, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   encodings, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   encouraged, Feedback
   encrypted, Remote Administration Related
   encryption, rsync
   end, Usage, Command Substitution, Finding files, Mass Rename/copy/link
          Tools, Finding information about the system, Shutting
          Down/Rebooting the System, Controlling Processes, Controlling
          services, Text manipulation tools, Text Conversion/Filter
          Tools, Security, File Permissions, Regular Expressions

   end-of-file, Usage, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   end-of-line, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   ending, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions
   endorsements, Disclaimer
   ends, Internet Specific Commands, Standard Wildcards (globbing
          patterns), Regular Expressions

   english, Conventions used in this guide
   enhancements, Availability of sources
   enscript, Conversion tools
   ensure, Controlling Processes
   enter, Mathematical tools
   entered, The command-line history
   entire, Legal, The command-line history, Finding files, Text
          manipulation tools, Network Commands, Remote Administration
          Related, rsync

   entries, Text Viewing Tools
   entry, Text manipulation tools, Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background

   environment, General Shell Tips, Managing users
   epigram, Miscellaneous
   epigrams, Miscellaneous
   equals, Who would want to read this guide?, File Permissions
   equivalent, The command-line history, Moving around the filesystem,
          Date/Time/Calendars, Security, Regular Expressions

   error, Concept Definitions, Usage, Working with files and folders,
          Finding information about the system

   errors, Contributors , Disclaimer, Working with MS-DOS files, Checking
          the Hard Disk for errors

   ESC-$, General Shell Tips
   ESC-Y, General Shell Tips
   escape, General Shell Tips, Security, Standard Wildcards (globbing
          patterns), Regular Expressions

   especially, Contributors , File Permissions
   eth0, Network Configuration
   evaluates, Mathematical tools
   even, Conventions used in this guide, The Unix Tools Philosophy,
          Working with files and folders, Finding information about the
          system, File Permissions

   events, Controlling services
   everyday, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   everyone, File Permissions
   everything, Moving around the filesystem, Working with files and
          folders, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Finding information about
          the system, Managing users, Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background

   exact, Help, Moving around the filesystem, Finding files, Shutting
          Down/Rebooting the System, Controlling Processes, Duplicating
          disks, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)

   exactly, Command Substitution, Working with files and folders,
          Controlling Processes, Mathematical tools

   example, Conventions used in this guide, The Unix Tools Philosophy,
          General Shell Tips, The command-line history, Help, Usage,
          Command Substitution, Moving around the filesystem, Finding
          files, Working with files and folders, Mass Rename/copy/link
          Tools, Finding information about the system,
          Date/Time/Calendars, Finding information about partitions,
          Controlling the system, Mounting and Unmounting
          (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions), Shutting Down/Rebooting
          the System, Controlling Processes, Controlling services, Text
          Viewing Tools , Text manipulation tools, Conversion tools,
          Finding Text Within Files, Mathematical tools, Network
          Commands, Network Configuration , Internet Specific Commands,
          Remote Administration Related, File Permissions, Compression,
          Graphics tools (command line based), Working with MS-DOS files,
          Scheduling Commands to run in the background, RPM: Redhat
          Package Management System, Standard Wildcards (globbing
          patterns), Regular Expressions,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   examples, Introduction, Conventions used in this guide, Disclaimer,
          Moving around the filesystem, Working with files and folders,
          Finding information about the system, Date/Time/Calendars,
          Mounting and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions),
          Text Viewing Tools , Internet Specific Commands, Scheduling
          Commands to run in the background

   exclamation mark, General Shell Tips
   exclude, Finding files
   Excluding, Finding files,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   executable, Conventions used in this guide, Moving around the
          filesystem, Finding files

   execute, The command-line history, Command Substitution, Performing
          more than one command, Finding information about the system,
          Controlling Processes, Controlling services, Mathematical
          tools, Remote Administration Related, File Permissions, Working
          with MS-DOS files, Scheduling Commands to run in the background

   execution, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   exist, Usage, Working with files and folders, Internet Specific
          Commands

   existing, Usage, Controlling Processes, File Permissions
   exit, General Shell Tips, Working with files and folders, Text Viewing
          Tools , Mathematical tools, RPM: Redhat Package Management
          System

   expand, General Shell Tips, Text manipulation tools, Finding Text
          Within Files

   expanding, General Shell Tips, Internet Specific Commands
   expands, General Shell Tips
   expert, Who would not want to read this guide?
   explain, Introduction
   explaining, Conventions used in this guide
   explains, Directing Input/Output, Working with the file-system,
          Network Commands, Graphics tools (command line based)

   explanation, Finding information about the system, Security
   explanations, Who would want to read this guide?
   explicitly, Conventions used in this guide
   expression, Mathematical tools
   expressions, Mathematical tools, Regular Expressions
   ext2, Working with files and folders, File Permissions
   ext3, Working with files and folders, File Permissions, Checking the
          Hard Disk for errors

   extended, Controlling Processes
   extension, Finding files, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Miscellaneous
   extensions, Miscellaneous
   extentions, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools
   extract, tar (tape archiver), Compression
     _________________________________________________________________

F

   factors, Mathematical tools
   fail, The command-line history
   fails, General Shell Tips, Performing more than one command
   familiar, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   Feedback, Feedback
   fg, Controlling Processes
   fgrep, Finding Text Within Files
   field, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   fields, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   figlet, Conversion tools
   file, General Shell Tips, Directing Input/Output, Concept Definitions,
          Usage, Working with the file-system, Moving around the
          filesystem, Finding files, Working with files and folders, Mass
          Rename/copy/link Tools, Finding information about the system,
          Users/Groups, Text Viewing Tools , Text Information Tools, Text
          manipulation tools, Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Conversion
          tools, Finding Text Within Files, Mathematical tools, Network
          Commands, Internet Specific Commands, Security, Some basic
          Security Tools, File Permissions, tar (tape archiver),
          Compression, Graphics tools (command line based), Scheduling
          Commands to run in the background, Miscellaneous, RPM: Redhat
          Package Management System, Checking the Hard Disk for errors,
          Duplicating disks, Wildcards, Standard Wildcards (globbing
          patterns), Regular Expressions

   file-system, General Shell Tips, Working with the file-system, Working
          with files and folders, Mounting and Unmounting
          (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions)

   file-systems, Finding information about the system
   file1, Working with files and folders, Text Information Tools
   file2, Working with files and folders
   filename, Working with files and folders
   filename1, Working with files and folders
   filename2, Working with files and folders
   filepart1, Text Viewing Tools
   filepart2, Text Viewing Tools
   filepart3, Text Viewing Tools
   files, Formats, Resources used to create this document , The
          command-line history, Usage, Working with the file-system,
          Moving around the filesystem, Finding files, Working with files
          and folders, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Finding information
          about the system, Date/Time/Calendars, Controlling Processes,
          Users/Groups, Text Related Tools, Text Viewing Tools , Text
          Information Tools, Text manipulation tools, Text
          Conversion/Filter Tools, Conversion tools, Finding Text Within
          Files, Network Commands, Internet Specific Commands, Remote
          Administration Related, Some basic Security Tools, File
          Permissions, Archiving Files, tar (tape archiver), rsync,
          Compression, Graphics tools (command line based), Working with
          MS-DOS files, Scheduling Commands to run in the background,
          Miscellaneous, RPM: Redhat Package Management System, Standard
          Wildcards (globbing patterns)

   filesystem, Moving around the filesystem, Finding files, Working with
          files and folders, Finding information about partitions, Remote
          Administration Related, File Permissions, Working with MS-DOS
          files

   filesystems, File Permissions, Working with MS-DOS files
   file_name, Working with files and folders
   filter, Text manipulation tools, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   filters, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   find, General Shell Tips, The command-line history, Help, Command
          Substitution, Finding files, Working with files and folders,
          Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Finding information about the
          system, Finding information about partitions, Controlling
          Processes, Text Editors, Text Viewing Tools , Text manipulation
          tools, Mathematical tools, Network Commands, Internet Specific
          Commands, rsync, Compression, Graphics tools (command line
          based), Scheduling Commands to run in the background,
          Wildcards, Regular Expressions

   finding, Working with the file-system, Controlling Processes, Text
          Related Tools, Text Information Tools

   finding tools, Finding a particular tool(s)
   finds, Help, Finding files, Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Finding Text
          Within Files

   findsmb, Network Commands
   finger, Users/Groups
   finish, Working with files and folders
   finished, Usage, Working with files and folders, Mathematical tools
   five, Conventions used in this guide, Scheduling Commands to run in
          the background

   fix, General Shell Tips, Managing users
   fixing, Contributors
   flag, File Permissions
   flags, File Permissions
   flash, General Shell Tips
   flexible, rsync
   floppy, Working with files and folders, Working with MS-DOS files,
          Duplicating disks

   floppy-image, Duplicating disks
   fmt, Text manipulation tools
   folders, Finding files
   followed, Conventions used in this guide, Controlling Processes,
          Controlling services,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   following, Formats, Conventions used in this guide, Contributors ,
          General Shell Tips, Concept Definitions, Text manipulation
          tools, Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Network Configuration ,
          Scheduling Commands to run in the background

   Follows, Finding Text Within Files, Mathematical tools
   foo, Conversion tools
   force, Working with files and folders, Controlling Processes
   foreground, Controlling Processes
   forgotten, Security
   form, Controlling Processes, Regular Expressions
   format, Availability of sources, General Shell Tips, Finding
          information about the system, Text Conversion/Filter Tools,
          Compression, Graphics tools (command line based), Working with
          MS-DOS files

   formats, Formats, Text Related Tools, Text Conversion/Filter Tools,
          Graphics tools (command line based), Working with MS-DOS files

   formatted, Working with MS-DOS files
   forms, Text manipulation tools
   fortune, Miscellaneous
   forward, Date/Time/Calendars
   forwards, Text Viewing Tools
   found, Contributors , License, The command-line history, Finding
          information about partitions, Text manipulation tools, Finding
          Text Within Files, Security, Graphics tools (command line
          based)

   Foundation, License
   four, Working with files and folders
   fourth, Text manipulation tools
   fractions, Mathematical tools
   frame, Conventions used in this guide
   frameset, Conventions used in this guide
   free, Availability of sources, License, Virtual Terminals and screen,
          Finding information about the system

   Free Software , License
   freeze, Controlling Processes
   fromdos, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   Front-Cover, License
   ftp, Internet Specific Commands, Remote Administration Related
   full, Moving around the filesystem, Finding files, Users/Groups, Text
          manipulation tools, Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Internet
          Specific Commands, Remote Administration Related, Working with
          MS-DOS files, RPM: Redhat Package Management System

   function, Introduction, General Shell Tips, Usage, Controlling
          Processes, Network Commands, Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background

   functions, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Managing users
   further reading, Specific Further reading
     _________________________________________________________________

G

   gallons, Mathematical tools
   garbled, General Shell Tips
   Garrels, Who would want to read this guide?
   Garrels, Machtelt, Contributors
   gateway, Network Configuration
   gave, Contributors
   general, Who would want to read this guide?, Contributors ,
          Mathematical tools, Internet Specific Commands

   generator, Some basic Security Tools
   gentle, Who would want to read this guide?
   giga, Miscellaneous
   global, General Shell Tips
   globbing, Conventions used in this guide, Wildcards, Standard
          Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions

   GNU, License, rsync, Compression
   GNU Directory, Finding more useful tools
   GNU Free , License
   GNU Free documentation license, GNU Free Documentation License
   gopher, Internet Specific Commands
   grammar, Contributors
   grand, Working with files and folders
   granted, License
   graph, Moving around the filesystem
   graphical, Network Commands,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   graphically,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   Graphics, Introduction, Graphics tools (command line based)
   great, Contributors , Virtual Terminals and screen, Mathematical tools

   greater, Usage
   greatly, Text manipulation tools
   grep, Finding information about the system, Finding Text Within Files,
          Mathematical tools, Wildcards,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   group, Finding information about the system, Controlling Processes,
          Users/Groups, Security, File Permissions, RPM: Redhat Package
          Management System

   groups, Users/Groups
   grub, Security
   guess, Some basic Security Tools
   guesses, Controlling Processes
   GUI, Introduction, Who would want to read this guide?
   guide, Introduction, Who would want to read this guide?, Conventions
          used in this guide, Feedback, Contributors , Text Related
          Tools, Graphics tools (command line based), Miscellaneous

   Guillion, B. Dr., Resources used to create this document
   gunzip, tar (tape archiver)
   gzip, Text Viewing Tools , tar (tape archiver), Compression
   gzipped, tar (tape archiver), Compression
     _________________________________________________________________

H

   halt, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System
   hand, RPM: Redhat Package Management System
   handles, Controlling services
   handy, Shell Tips, Some basic Security Tools
   Hard, Working with files and folders
   hard-link, Working with files and folders
   hard-links, Working with files and folders
   harmless, General Shell Tips
   Harmon, George, Contributors
   hda, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   hdb, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   hdc, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   head, Text Viewing Tools
   header, Working with files and folders, Conversion tools
   hello, General Shell Tips
   help, Help, Network Configuration , Remote Administration Related
   helped, Contributors
   hexadecimal,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   hidden, Moving around the filesystem, Internet Specific Commands
   hierarchy, Working with the file-system, Moving around the filesystem,
          Mounting and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions),
          Controlling Processes

   higher, Controlling Processes
   highlight, Conversion tools
   highlighting, Conversion tools
   highly, Disclaimer
   history, The command-line history, Other Key combinations
   hit, Usage, Mathematical tools, Security
   hitting, Usage
   Home, Conventions used in this guide, General Shell Tips, Moving
          around the filesystem, Working with files and folders,
          Users/Groups, Remote Administration Related, Standard Wildcards
          (globbing patterns)

   host, Network Commands, Internet Specific Commands
   host-name, Internet Specific Commands
   hosted, Availability of sources
   hostname, Network Commands, Internet Specific Commands, Remote
          Administration Related

   hosts, Network Commands
   hour, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   hours, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   hp166, Remote Administration Related
   HTML, Formats, Contributors , Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Conversion
          tools

   http, Internet Specific Commands
   huge, Internet Specific Commands
   human, Working with files and folders
   human-readable, Working with files and folders
     _________________________________________________________________

I

   ibiblio, Specific Further reading
   IBM, Regular Expressions
   IBM Developerworks, General Further Reading
   id, Controlling Processes
   id's, Controlling Processes
   idea, Who would want to read this guide?
   ideas, Feedback
   identify, Graphics tools (command line based)
   ids, Controlling Processes
   ifcfg, Network Configuration
   ifconfig, Network Configuration
   ifdown, Network Configuration
   ifup, Network Configuration
   ignore, Internet Specific Commands
   image, Working with files and folders, Graphics tools (command line
          based), Duplicating disks

   ImageMagick, Graphics tools (command line based), Specific Further
          reading

   images, Graphics tools (command line based)
   immutable, File Permissions
   import, Graphics tools (command line based)
   importance, Conventions used in this guide
   improve, Conventions used in this guide, Contributors
   improved, Contributors
   improvements, Contributors
   in-between, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular
          Expressions

   inaccuracies, Disclaimer
   inbuilt, General Shell Tips
   inches, Mathematical tools
   include, Contributors , File Permissions
   includes, Finding information about the system, Network Commands
   including, General Shell Tips, Concept Definitions, Finding files,
          Working with files and folders, Finding information about the
          system, Controlling services, Text manipulation tools, Internet
          Specific Commands, Remote Administration Related, File
          Permissions, Graphics tools (command line based), Scheduling
          Commands to run in the background, Standard Wildcards (globbing
          patterns),
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   increase, Controlling Processes
   indented, Text manipulation tools
   index, Who would want to read this guide?, Contributors
   indication, Controlling Processes
   individual, Introduction, Help, Text Viewing Tools
   info, Help, Controlling Processes, Text manipulation tools, Network
          Commands, Working with MS-DOS files, Wildcards,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   information, Introduction, Who would want to read this guide?, Who
          would not want to read this guide?, Conventions used in this
          guide, Legal, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Shell Tips, General
          Shell Tips, Help, Concept Definitions, Usage, Working with
          files and folders, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Finding
          information about the system, Finding information about
          partitions, Controlling Processes, Users/Groups, Finding Text
          Within Files, Network Commands, Network Configuration ,
          Internet Specific Commands, Security, File Permissions,
          Archiving Files, rsync, Compression, Graphics tools (command
          line based), Miscellaneous, Mini-Guides, Duplicating disks,
          Wildcards, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular
          Expressions,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   inode, File Permissions
   input, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Concept Definitions, Usage, Command
          Substitution, Working with files and folders, Finding
          information about the system, Text manipulation tools,
          Mathematical tools

   input, standard, Concept Definitions
   insensitive, Finding files
   insert, Usage
   inside, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   inspection, Network Commands
   install, Archiving Files
   installed, Help, Finding Text Within Files, Mathematical tools, RPM:
          Redhat Package Management System

   instances, Text manipulation tools
   instructions, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools
   integer, Mathematical tools
   integrated, Contributors
   integrity, Some basic Security Tools, Compression
   interact, Controlling the system, Controlling Processes
   interactive, Controlling Processes, Mathematical tools
   interchangeably, Introduction, Command Substitution
   interface, Who would not want to read this guide?, Network Commands,
          Network Configuration

   interfaces, Network Configuration
   intermediate, Who would want to read this guide?
   internal, Remote Administration Related
   internet, Virtual Terminals and screen, Text Editors, Network
          Commands, Internet Specific Commands, Some basic Security Tools

   interpret, Finding files, Regular Expressions
   interpreted, Mathematical tools
   interprets, Network Commands
   interrelate, Controlling Processes
   introduction, Who would want to read this guide?
   Invariant, License
   invention, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   IP, Mounting and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions),
          Network Commands, Network Configuration , Internet Specific
          Commands

   issues, Contributors
   italic, Conventions used in this guide, Standard Wildcards (globbing
          patterns)

   italics, Conventions used in this guide
     _________________________________________________________________

J

   job, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   jobs, Controlling Processes, Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background

   join, Text manipulation tools
   jpeg, Working with files and folders, Graphics tools (command line
          based)

   JPG, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools
   judged, Who would want to read this guide?
     _________________________________________________________________

K

   Karakas, Chris, Resources used to create this document , Contributors
   Kb, Working with files and folders
   kernel, Finding information about the system, Security
   kernel-modules, Finding information about the system
   Kevin Fenzi, Security
   key, Conventions used in this guide, The command-line history,
          Controlling Processes

   key-combinations, Virtual Terminals and screen
   keyboard, Concept Definitions
   keys, Conventions used in this guide, The command-line history
   keyword, Help
   keywords, Miscellaneous
   kibibyte, Miscellaneous
   kill, Controlling Processes, Controlling services
   killall, Controlling Processes
   killed, Controlling Processes
   kilobyte, Working with files and folders
   kilobytes, Working with files and folders, Finding information about
          the system

   kind, Working with files and folders, Shutting Down/Rebooting the
          System, Finding Text Within Files, Standard Wildcards (globbing
          patterns), Regular Expressions

   kinds, Working with files and folders
   knowledge, Who would not want to read this guide?
     _________________________________________________________________

L

   lang, Conversion tools
   language, Contributors
   last, The command-line history, Working with files and folders,
          Finding information about the system, Text Viewing Tools , File
          Permissions, tar (tape archiver)

   lastlog, Finding information about the system
   LaTeX, Availability of sources
   Lawyer, David, Contributors
   ldap, Internet Specific Commands
   le, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   leading, Moving around the filesystem
   learn, Who would want to read this guide?, Contributors , Moving
          around the filesystem, Text Editors, Text manipulation tools,
          Mathematical tools, Network Configuration

   learning, Who would want to read this guide?, Text Editors
   least, Introduction, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Text manipulation
          tools, Wildcards

   left, Conventions used in this guide, The command-line history,
          Working with files and folders, Finding information about the
          system, Text manipulation tools, Scheduling Commands to run in
          the background

   legal, Legal
   length, Some basic Security Tools
   less, Who would want to read this guide?, Usage, Text Viewing Tools
   lesser, General Shell Tips, Text manipulation tools
   let, Compression
   letter, Finding information about partitions,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   letters, File Permissions, Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   level, Conventions used in this guide, Security
   levels, Moving around the filesystem
   liability, Disclaimer
   License, License, GNU Free Documentation License
   licensing, Legal
   lilo, Security, File Permissions
   limited, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools
   line, General Shell Tips, The command-line history, Help, Mass
          Rename/copy/link Tools, Finding information about the system,
          Text Information Tools, Text manipulation tools, Text
          Conversion/Filter Tools, Finding Text Within Files,
          Mathematical tools, RPM: Redhat Package Management System,
          Regular Expressions

   line-by-line, Text Information Tools
   lines, Working with files and folders, Finding information about the
          system, Text Viewing Tools , Text Information Tools, Text
          manipulation tools, Finding Text Within Files, Regular
          Expressions,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   link, Working with files and folders
   linked, Controlling the system
   links, Introduction, Working with files and folders, Internet Specific
          Commands

   links, hard, Working with files and folders
   links, symbolic, Working with files and folders
   link_name, Working with files and folders
   Linux, Who would want to read this guide?, General Shell Tips, Network
          Commands, Security, Miscellaneous, Duplicating disks

   Linux in a Nutshell, General Further Reading
   Linux Newbie Admin guide, General Further Reading
   list, Who would want to read this guide?, Who would not want to read
          this guide?, Contributors , General Shell Tips, The
          command-line history, Help, Moving around the filesystem,
          Finding files, Working with files and folders, Finding
          information about the system, Controlling Processes,
          Users/Groups, Text Editors, Text Information Tools, Text
          manipulation tools, Network Commands, Network Configuration ,
          File Permissions, tar (tape archiver), Graphics tools (command
          line based), Scheduling Commands to run in the background

   listed, Introduction, General Shell Tips, Working with files and
          folders, Finding information about the system, Mounting and
          Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions), Users/Groups,
          Text Information Tools, Network Commands, Graphics tools
          (command line based), Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular
          Expressions

   listen, Controlling services
   listened, Contributors
   listens, Controlling services
   listing, Who would not want to read this guide?, Contributors , Text
          Conversion/Filter Tools, File Permissions, Working with MS-DOS
          files

   lists, Introduction, Who would not want to read this guide?, General
          Shell Tips, Usage, Moving around the filesystem, Finding Text
          Within Files, Network Commands, Scheduling Commands to run in
          the background

   literal, Finding Text Within Files
   litres, Mathematical tools
   ln, Working with files and folders
   loaded, Finding information about the system
   local, Remote Administration Related, rsync
   locates, Finding files
   location, Conventions used in this guide, Usage
   locking, Users/Groups, Security
   log, The command-line history, Virtual Terminals and screen
   logged, Finding information about the system, Shutting Down/Rebooting
          the System, Network Commands, Remote Administration Related

   logging, Remote Administration Related
   logical, Performing more than one command, Standard Wildcards
          (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions

   login, Users/Groups, Internet Specific Commands, Remote Administration
          Related

   logout, General Shell Tips
   logs-out, General Shell Tips
   long, Moving around the filesystem, Finding information about the
          system, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)

   look, Introduction, Who would want to read this guide?, Who would not
          want to read this guide?, General Shell Tips, Usage, Finding
          files, Working with files and folders, Finding information
          about the system, Finding information about partitions, Text
          Editors, Text Information Tools, Finding Text Within Files,
          Mathematical tools, Network Commands, Internet Specific
          Commands, Compression, Graphics tools (command line based),
          Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns),
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   looking, Introduction, Who would want to read this guide?, Who would
          not want to read this guide?, The command-line history, Finding
          information about the system, Date/Time/Calendars, Text
          Conversion/Filter Tools, Internet Specific Commands, Security

   looks, Finding files, Text manipulation tools
   lookup, Internet Specific Commands
   lost, Controlling Processes
   low, Working with files and folders
   low-level, Working with files and folders
   lower-case,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   lowercase, Text manipulation tools,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   ls, Moving around the filesystem, Working with files and folders, File
          Permissions

   lsattr, File Permissions
   lsd, Moving around the filesystem
   LyX, Availability of sources, Resources used to create this document ,
          Contributors

   lyxtox, Contributors
     _________________________________________________________________

M

   machine, General Shell Tips, Working with files and folders, Finding
          information about the system, Controlling services, Text
          Related Tools, Network Commands, Internet Specific Commands,
          Remote Administration Related, rsync

   Machine-translated, Availability of sources
   machines, Virtual Terminals and screen, Network Commands, Remote
          Administration Related, Security

   magic, General Shell Tips
   maintenance, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System
   major, Who would want to read this guide?, Internet Specific Commands,
          Wildcards

   majority, Introduction
   makewhatis, Help
   man, Who would not want to read this guide?, Help, Mass
          Rename/copy/link Tools, Graphics tools (command line based),
          Miscellaneous

   management, Controlling services
   Mandriva, RPM: Redhat Package Management System
   manipulate, Working with the file-system, Text Related Tools, Graphics
          tools (command line based)

   manipulation, Wildcards, Regular Expressions
   manual, Virtual Terminals and screen, Help, Moving around the
          filesystem, Finding files, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Finding
          information about partitions, Controlling Processes, Text
          Viewing Tools , Network Commands, Internet Specific Commands,
          Remote Administration Related, File Permissions, Miscellaneous,
          Wildcards, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular
          Expressions

   manually, Compression
   map, Working with files and folders
   mark, Working with MS-DOS files
   marks, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System, Working with MS-DOS files
   markup, Availability of sources
   masquerade, Network Commands
   mass, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools
   mass-rename, Working with the file-system
   match, Moving around the filesystem, Finding files, Standard Wildcards
          (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions

   matched, Regular Expressions
   matching, Help, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Finding Text Within
          Files, File Permissions, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)

   material, Contributors
   maximum, Controlling Processes
   mbadblocks, Working with MS-DOS files
   mbm, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions
   mcm, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions
   mcopy, Working with MS-DOS files
   md5, Some basic Security Tools, RPM: Redhat Package Management System
   md5sum, Some basic Security Tools
   mdm, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions
   mean, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   meaning, Introduction, Conventions used in this guide, RPM: Redhat
          Package Management System,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   measure, Finding information about the system, Miscellaneous
   measurement, Mathematical tools
   measurements, Miscellaneous
   measures, Finding information about the system
   medskip, Text manipulation tools, Security
   meet, Miscellaneous
   mega, Miscellaneous
   Megabyte, Working with files and folders
   megabytes, Working with files and folders, Finding information about
          the system

   memory, Finding information about the system, Controlling services
   Mendel, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools
   Menu, Conventions used in this guide, Graphics tools (command line
          based)

   message, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System
   meters, Mathematical tools
   method, rsync
   methods, File Permissions
   mformat, Working with MS-DOS files
   Microsoft, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   middle,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   mind, Working with files and folders
   mini-guide, Introduction
   mini-guides, Introduction, Mini-Guides
   mini-tutorials, Introduction
   minimal, Users/Groups, Text Editors
   minimum, Controlling Processes
   minor, Contributors , Managing users
   minus, Security, File Permissions,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   minute, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   minutes, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System
   mis-match, RPM: Redhat Package Management System
   miscellaneous, Graphics tools (command line based), Miscellaneous
   mixed, Concept Definitions
   mkdir, Working with files and folders
   mkpasswd, Some basic Security Tools
   mmount, Working with MS-DOS files
   mmv, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools
   mode, Working with files and folders, Shutting Down/Rebooting the
          System, Controlling Processes, RPM: Redhat Package Management
          System

   modifiable, Availability of sources
   modification, Moving around the filesystem
   modified, RPM: Redhat Package Management System
   modify, License, Network Configuration , File Permissions
   mogrify, Graphics tools (command line based)
   mom, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions
   monolithic, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   montage, Graphics tools (command line based)
   month, Date/Time/Calendars, Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background

   months, Date/Time/Calendars
   more, Introduction, Who would want to read this guide?, The Unix Tools
          Philosophy, Help, Moving around the filesystem, Finding files,
          Working with files and folders, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools,
          Finding information about the system, Controlling Processes,
          Text Related Tools, Text Viewing Tools , Text manipulation
          tools, Conversion tools, Finding Text Within Files, Network
          Commands, Network Configuration , Internet Specific Commands,
          Remote Administration Related, File Permissions, tar (tape
          archiver), Compression, Working with MS-DOS files,
          Miscellaneous, Mini-Guides, Wildcards, Standard Wildcards
          (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions

   morning, Working with files and folders
   mount, Mounting and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions),
          Working with MS-DOS files

   mounted, Finding files, Finding information about the system, Finding
          information about partitions, Mounting and Unmounting
          (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions), Working with MS-DOS files

   mouse, Conventions used in this guide
   move, Working with the file-system, Working with files and folders,
          Finding information about the system, Text Viewing Tools

   moving, Finding files, Working with files and folders
   mozilla, Controlling Processes
   mp3, Finding information about the system
   ms-dos, Compression, Working with MS-DOS files
   mTime, RPM: Redhat Package Management System
   mtools, Working with MS-DOS files
   mull, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   multiple, Virtual Terminals and screen, Working with files and
          folders, Controlling Processes, Text Viewing Tools , Standard
          Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions

   mum, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions
   must, Conventions used in this guide, Controlling Processes, Security
   mv, Working with files and folders, Finding information about the
          system

   myfile, Regular Expressions
   myfiles1, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions
   myfiles2, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions
   my_report.txt, Working with files and folders
     _________________________________________________________________

N

   named, Usage, Finding files, Controlling Processes
   Naming, Disclaimer
   NetBSD, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   netstat, Network Commands
   network, Network Commands, Network Configuration
   networking, Network Commands, Network Configuration
   new, Availability of sources, Working with files and folders, Finding
          information about the system, Date/Time/Calendars, Text
          Conversion/Filter Tools, Network Configuration , Remote
          Administration Related, File Permissions

   newer, Working with files and folders, Compression
   newline, General Shell Tips, Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Scheduling
          Commands to run in the background

   newlines,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   new_location, Working with files and folders
   Next, Conventions used in this guide, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools,
          Text Viewing Tools

   ng, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools
   nice, Date/Time/Calendars, Controlling Processes
   nl, Text manipulation tools
   nmap, Network Commands
   nn, Regular Expressions
   nnnn, Regular Expressions
   nnnnnnn, Regular Expressions
   non-blank, Text Viewing Tools , Text manipulation tools
   none, General Shell Tips, RPM: Redhat Package Management System
   normal, Who would want to read this guide?, Controlling Processes,
          Internet Specific Commands, Compression, Working with MS-DOS
          files, Scheduling Commands to run in the background

   NOT, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   number, Contributors , The Unix Tools Philosophy, Directing
          Input/Output, Working with the file-system, Moving around the
          filesystem, Finding files, Working with files and folders,
          Finding information about the system, Date/Time/Calendars,
          Finding information about partitions, Shutting Down/Rebooting
          the System, Controlling Processes, Text Viewing Tools , Text
          Information Tools, Text manipulation tools, Conversion tools,
          Mathematical tools, Internet Specific Commands, File
          Permissions, Graphics tools (command line based), Scheduling
          Commands to run in the background, RPM: Redhat Package
          Management System, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns),
          Regular Expressions

   numbering, Text manipulation tools
   numbers, Users/Groups, Mathematical tools, Security, File Permissions,
          Scheduling Commands to run in the background,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   numeric, Text manipulation tools
   numgrep, Mathematical tools
     _________________________________________________________________

O

   occupying, File Permissions
   occur, Controlling services, Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background

   occurances, Finding files, Text manipulation tools, Text
          Conversion/Filter Tools

   off, Contributors , General Shell Tips, Network Commands, File
          Permissions, Wildcards

   office, Users/Groups
   official, Availability of sources
   old, File Permissions, rsync
   omit, Remote Administration Related
   on-screen, Graphics tools (command line based)
   one-line, Text manipulation tools
   online, Help, Finding information about partitions, Mini-Guides,
          Duplicating disks, Regular Expressions

   online info pages, Online Manual And Info Pages
   online man pages, Online Manual And Info Pages
   Open, Disclaimer, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Controlling the system,
          Text Viewing Tools , Network Commands, File Permissions,
          Graphics tools (command line based)

   OpenBSD, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   opened, File Permissions
   OpenSSH, Specific Further reading
   operate, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   operating, Introduction, Who would want to read this guide?, The Unix
          Tools Philosophy, Finding information about the system, Text
          Conversion/Filter Tools, Security

   operation, File Permissions
   operations, Who would want to read this guide?, Finding files
   opinion, Who would want to read this guide?
   option, General Shell Tips, Finding files, Working with files and
          folders, Finding information about the system,
          Date/Time/Calendars, Finding information about partitions,
          Controlling Processes, Controlling services, Users/Groups, Text
          Viewing Tools , Text manipulation tools, Finding Text Within
          Files, Internet Specific Commands, Some basic Security Tools,
          File Permissions, Graphics tools (command line based), Working
          with MS-DOS files, Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background, RPM: Redhat Package Management System

   optional, Working with files and folders, Finding information about
          the system

   options, Introduction, Who would not want to read this guide?, General
          Shell Tips, Moving around the filesystem, Finding files,
          Working with files and folders, Finding information about the
          system, Date/Time/Calendars, Shutting Down/Rebooting the
          System, Controlling Processes, Controlling services, Text
          Viewing Tools , Text Information Tools, Text manipulation
          tools, Conversion tools, Finding Text Within Files, Network
          Commands, Internet Specific Commands, tar (tape archiver),
          rsync, Graphics tools (command line based), Scheduling Commands
          to run in the background, Miscellaneous

   OR, Performing more than one command, Regular Expressions
   order, Moving around the filesystem, Text manipulation tools,
          Miscellaneous

   original, Availability of sources, Conventions used in this guide, The
          Unix Tools Philosophy, Working with files and folders, Managing
          users, Text Conversion/Filter Tools, tar (tape archiver)

   OS, Finding information about the system
   output, The Unix Tools Philosophy, General Shell Tips, Help, Directing
          Input/Output, Concept Definitions, Usage, Command Substitution,
          Moving around the filesystem, Working with files and folders,
          Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Finding information about the
          system, Finding information about partitions, Text Information
          Tools, Text manipulation tools, Conversion tools, Finding Text
          Within Files, Mathematical tools, Internet Specific Commands,
          tar (tape archiver), Regular Expressions,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   output, error, Usage
   output, standard, Concept Definitions, Usage
   Outputs, Moving around the filesystem, Finding files, Text Viewing
          Tools , Text Information Tools, Finding Text Within Files,
          Miscellaneous

   override, General Shell Tips
   overwrite, Usage, Working with files and folders
   overwriting, Working with files and folders, Text Conversion/Filter
          Tools, Internet Specific Commands

   ownership, Moving around the filesystem, File Permissions, RPM: Redhat
          Package Management System
     _________________________________________________________________

P

   package, Resources used to create this document , Remote
          Administration Related, Archiving Files, Working with MS-DOS
          files, RPM: Redhat Package Management System

   packet, Network Commands
   packets, Network Commands
   page, Conventions used in this guide, General Shell Tips, Virtual
          Terminals and screen, Help, Moving around the filesystem,
          Finding files, Working with files and folders, Mass
          Rename/copy/link Tools, Date/Time/Calendars, Finding
          information about partitions, Controlling Processes, Text
          Viewing Tools , Text manipulation tools, Conversion tools,
          Network Commands, Network Configuration , Internet Specific
          Commands, Remote Administration Related, File Permissions,
          rsync, Graphics tools (command line based), Miscellaneous,
          Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   pages, Who would not want to read this guide?, Controlling Processes
   parameter, File Permissions
   paranoia, Working with files and folders
   parent, Moving around the filesystem, Internet Specific Commands
   parse, Internet Specific Commands
   part, Help, Finding files, Working with files and folders, Finding
          information about the system, Controlling Processes, Remote
          Administration Related, Miscellaneous

   particular, Introduction, Who would want to read this guide?,
          Disclaimer, The Unix Tools Philosophy, General Shell Tips,
          Help, Moving around the filesystem, Finding files, Working with
          files and folders, Finding information about the system,
          Controlling Processes, Controlling services, Users/Groups, Text
          Information Tools, Text manipulation tools, Finding Text Within
          Files, Network Commands, Network Configuration , File
          Permissions, Graphics tools (command line based), Scheduling
          Commands to run in the background

   partition, Working with files and folders, Finding information about
          partitions

   partition--everything, Working with files and folders
   partitions, Finding information about partitions
   parts, Contributors , Wildcards, Regular Expressions
   pass, Working with files and folders
   passed, General Shell Tips, Finding information about the system
   passes, Working with files and folders
   passwd, Users/Groups
   password, Users/Groups, Internet Specific Commands, Remote
          Administration Related, Security, Some basic Security Tools

   passwords, Users/Groups, Remote Administration Related, Some basic
          Security Tools

   paste, Text manipulation tools
   path, Moving around the filesystem, Finding files, Working with files
          and folders, RPM: Redhat Package Management System

   paths, Moving around the filesystem
   pattern, Finding files, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Regular
          Expressions

   PC, Remote Administration Related
   peace, Working with files and folders
   people, Contributors , File Permissions
   perform, Introduction, The command-line history, Usage, Working with
          files and folders, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Controlling
          services, Managing users, Remote Administration Related,
          Graphics tools (command line based), Scheduling Commands to run
          in the background, Wildcards

   performing, Who would want to read this guide?, Finding information
          about the system, Controlling services

   performs, Network Commands, Regular Expressions
   perl, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Text manipulation tools,
          Miscellaneous

   Permission, License, File Permissions
   permissions, Security, File Permissions, tar (tape archiver), RPM:
          Redhat Package Management System

   permitted, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   Persad, Tabatha, Contributors
   person, Text manipulation tools, Remote Administration Related, File
          Permissions

   pgrep, Controlling Processes
   Philosophy, Introduction, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Compression
   phrase, Conventions used in this guide, Text Information Tools,
          Wildcards

   physical, Virtual Terminals and screen, Finding files
   pictures, Conventions used in this guide
   pid, Controlling Processes
   piece, Miscellaneous
   ping, Network Commands
   pipe, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Usage, Command Substitution, Text
          manipulation tools, Regular Expressions

   pipes, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Command Substitution
   pkill, Controlling Processes
   place, The command-line history, Mounting and Unmounting
          (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions)

   plain, Working with files and folders, Text Conversion/Filter Tools,
          Remote Administration Related

   plan, Availability of sources
   play, Text Editors
   PNG, Graphics tools (command line based)
   pointers, Working with files and folders
   popular, Wildcards
   ports, Network Commands
   Positive, Feedback, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools
   possible, Introduction, Who would not want to read this guide?,
          General Shell Tips, Network Commands

   possibly, Graphics tools (command line based)
   post, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools
   postscript, Conversion tools
   power, Who would want to read this guide?, Shutting Down/Rebooting the
          System, Managing users, Graphics tools (command line based)

   powerful, Directing Input/Output, Finding information about the
          system, Text Editors, Text manipulation tools, Mathematical
          tools, Network Commands

   practice, Managing users
   preceding, Moving around the filesystem
   prefix, Text Information Tools
   prefixed, Text Viewing Tools
   present, Date/Time/Calendars
   preserves, tar (tape archiver)
   press, Conventions used in this guide, The command-line history,
          Shutting Down/Rebooting the System, Managing users,
          Mathematical tools, Security, Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background

   prevent, Conventions used in this guide, Internet Specific Commands,
          File Permissions

   Prevents, Working with files and folders
   Previous, Conventions used in this guide, Performing more than one
          command, Moving around the filesystem, Text Viewing Tools ,
          File Permissions

   primary, Checking the Hard Disk for errors
   Print, Moving around the filesystem, Working with files and folders,
          Finding information about the system, Date/Time/Calendars,
          Controlling services, Text manipulation tools, Finding Text
          Within Files, Miscellaneous

   printable,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   printed, Conventions used in this guide, General Shell Tips, Concept
          Definitions

   printing, Working with files and folders, Text Information Tools
   prints, Help, Working with files and folders, Finding information
          about the system, Controlling Processes, Text Information
          Tools, Text manipulation tools, Regular Expressions,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   priorities, Controlling Processes
   priority, Controlling Processes
   privileges, Managing users
   probably, Text manipulation tools, Remote Administration Related, File
          Permissions, Compression

   problems, Feedback, Contributors , Working with files and folders,
          Finding information about the system, Text Conversion/Filter
          Tools

   proc, Finding information about partitions
   proc filesystem, Finding information about partitions
   procedure, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System
   proceed, Disclaimer
   proceeding, Regular Expressions
   process, Usage, Controlling Processes, Scheduling Commands to run in
          the background

   processed, Working with files and folders
   processes, Finding information about the system, Controlling the
          system, Controlling Processes

   processing, Users/Groups
   processor, Availability of sources, Resources used to create this
          document , Finding information about the system, Compression

   products, Disclaimer
   prog, Working with files and folders
   program, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Help, Directing Input/Output,
          Concept Definitions, Usage, Finding information about the
          system, Controlling Processes, Text manipulation tools,
          Mathematical tools, Network Commands, Internet Specific
          Commands, Security, Some basic Security Tools, File
          Permissions, Compression, Working with MS-DOS files, RPM:
          Redhat Package Management System

   programmers, Who would want to read this guide?, The Unix Tools
          Philosophy, Miscellaneous

   programming, Mathematical tools, Regular Expressions
   programs, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Concept Definitions, Conversion
          tools, Archiving Files, Compression, Graphics tools (command
          line based), Working with MS-DOS files

   program_name, Finding files
   prompt, Help, Finding information about the system, Controlling
          Processes, Text manipulation tools, Security

   prompts, Text manipulation tools
   protect, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions
   protocols, Network Commands, Internet Specific Commands
   provide, Controlling services
   provided, Introduction, Contributors
   provides, Legal, Shell Tips, Help, Controlling Processes, Archiving
          Files

   ps, Controlling Processes
   pstree, Controlling Processes
   punctuation,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   purpose, Who would not want to read this guide?
   putting, General Shell Tips
   pwd, Moving around the filesystem
   python, Mathematical tools
     _________________________________________________________________

Q

   quality, Contributors
   queries, Network Commands
   query, Network Commands
   question, Finding information about partitions
   question mark, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   queue, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   quick, Introduction
   quickest, Who would want to read this guide?
   quit, Help
   quite, Moving around the filesystem, Finding files, Mass
          Rename/copy/link Tools, Text Editors

   quotation, General Shell Tips, Finding files, Shutting Down/Rebooting
          the System, Internet Specific Commands, Standard Wildcards
          (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions

   quote, Miscellaneous
   quoted, Contributors , General Shell Tips
   quotes, Internet Specific Commands
     _________________________________________________________________

R

   r, File Permissions
   random, Working with files and folders, Some basic Security Tools,
          Graphics tools (command line based), Miscellaneous

   range, Mathematical tools, Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular
          Expressions

   ranges, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   ranked, Miscellaneous
   rather, Working with files and folders, Standard Wildcards (globbing
          patterns)

   re-combine, Working with files and folders
   read, Introduction, Virtual Terminals and screen, Moving around the
          filesystem, Working with files and folders, Text manipulation
          tools, Mathematical tools, Network Configuration , File
          Permissions, Scheduling Commands to run in the background,
          Miscellaneous

   readability, Contributors , Text Information Tools
   readable, Working with files and folders
   reader, Conventions used in this guide
   readers, Who would not want to read this guide?
   reading, Conventions used in this guide, The Unix Tools Philosophy,
          File Permissions

   reads, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   real, Conventions used in this guide, Users/Groups
   really, General Shell Tips, Miscellaneous
   reboot, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System, Scheduling Commands to run
          in the background

   rebooted, Finding information about the system
   reboots, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System
   receive, Network Configuration
   received, Concept Definitions, Network Commands
   recode, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   recognised, Moving around the filesystem
   recommend, Mathematical tools
   recommended, Contributors , Users/Groups
   records, Finding information about the system
   recover, Compression
   recovered, Working with files and folders
   recursive, Finding Text Within Files
   recursively, Working with files and folders, File Permissions
   Redhat, Controlling services
   redirect, Usage
   Redirects, Usage
   reduced, Text manipulation tools
   Refer, Conventions used in this guide, Moving around the filesystem,
          Finding files, Finding information about the system,
          Date/Time/Calendars, Controlling Processes, Internet Specific
          Commands, Remote Administration Related, Standard Wildcards
          (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions

   reference, Who would want to read this guide?, Who would not want to
          read this guide?, The command-line history, Working with files
          and folders

   references, Contributors , Internet Specific Commands
   referencing, Contributors
   referred, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   reflected, Users/Groups
   regard, Contributors
   regarded, Disclaimer
   regardless, Finding files
   registered, Disclaimer
   regular, Finding files, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Controlling
          Processes, Finding Text Within Files, Wildcards, Regular
          Expressions

   rel, Miscellaneous
   relationship, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular
          Expressions

   relative, Moving around the filesystem
   release, Finding information about the system
   relevance, Miscellaneous
   relevant, Finding information about partitions, Text manipulation
          tools, Security, File Permissions, Miscellaneous

   reliable, Working with files and folders
   reloaded, Text Viewing Tools
   remote, Mounting and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions),
          Network Commands, Internet Specific Commands, Remote
          Administration Related, rsync

   remotely, Remote Administration Related
   removable, Mounting and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive
          Partitions)

   remove, General Shell Tips, Working with files and folders, Mounting
          and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions), Text
          manipulation tools, Text Conversion/Filter Tools, File
          Permissions, Scheduling Commands to run in the background,
          Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions

   removes, Working with files and folders, Mounting and Unmounting
          (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions), Text manipulation tools,
          Network Configuration

   removing, Finding files
   rename, Working with files and folders, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools,
          File Permissions, Miscellaneous

   Renames, Working with files and folders, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools
   renaming, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Miscellaneous
   renders, General Shell Tips
   renice, Controlling Processes
   Repair, Contributors , Working with MS-DOS files
   repairs, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System
   repeatedly, The command-line history
   repeats, General Shell Tips
   replace, Text manipulation tools
   replacement, rsync
   report, Controlling Processes
   represent, Moving around the filesystem, Text Conversion/Filter Tools,
          Mathematical tools, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)

   represented, Conventions used in this guide
   represents, Moving around the filesystem, File Permissions
   requests, Network Commands
   require, Introduction, Who would not want to read this guide?
   required, Contributors , Moving around the filesystem, Checking the
          Hard Disk for errors

   reset, General Shell Tips
   resources, Text Editors
   respective, Disclaimer
   respectively, File Permissions
   respond, Network Commands
   responses, Network Commands
   responsibility, Disclaimer
   responsible, Contributors
   restart, Controlling services
   restricted, Internet Specific Commands
   restrictions, Managing users
   result, Command Substitution, Text manipulation tools
   results, Usage, Finding information about the system, Text
          manipulation tools

   retrieve, Working with files and folders, Internet Specific Commands
   return, Moving around the filesystem, Controlling Processes,
          Controlling services, Managing users, Text Conversion/Filter
          Tools, Internet Specific Commands

   returned, RPM: Redhat Package Management System
   returns, Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Internet Specific Commands
   reverse, Text Viewing Tools , Text manipulation tools, Internet
          Specific Commands, Remote Administration Related

   review, Contributors
   rgb, Graphics tools (command line based)
   rgrep, Finding Text Within Files
   rights, File Permissions
   risk, Disclaimer
   rm, General Shell Tips, Working with files and folders, Standard
          Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions

   rmdir, Working with files and folders
   roman, The command-line history, Working with files and folders, Text
          manipulation tools

   root, Help, Finding files, Controlling Processes, Managing users,
          Users/Groups, Remote Administration Related, Security, File
          Permissions, Scheduling Commands to run in the background

   rotation, Graphics tools (command line based)
   rough, Contributors , Other Key combinations, Graphics tools (command
          line based)

   round, Network Commands
   route, Network Commands, Network Configuration
   routing, Network Configuration
   RPM, Security, RPM: Redhat Package Management System, Red Hat (rpm),
          Specific Further reading

   rsync, rsync, Specific Further reading
   rtf, Conversion tools
   run, Introduction, General Shell Tips, Help, Working with files and
          folders, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Finding information about
          the system, Controlling Processes, Controlling services, Text
          Viewing Tools , Text Information Tools, Text manipulation
          tools, Mathematical tools, Compression, Graphics tools (command
          line based), Scheduling Commands to run in the background

   running, Finding information about the system, Controlling Processes,
          Controlling services, Text Viewing Tools , Mathematical tools,
          Remote Administration Related

   runs, General Shell Tips, Usage, Controlling services, Security
   Rute User's Tutorial and Exposition, General Further Reading
     _________________________________________________________________

S

   samba, Mounting and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions),
          Specific Further reading

   sans, Conventions used in this guide, Usage
   save, Controlling Processes, Network Commands
   saved, Controlling Processes
   saves, rsync, Graphics tools (command line based)
   scales, Mathematical tools
   scaling, Graphics tools (command line based)
   scanner, Network Commands
   Scans, Working with MS-DOS files,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   scattered, Some basic Security Tools
   schedule, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   scheduled, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   scientific, Miscellaneous
   scores, Text Information Tools
   scp, Remote Administration Related
   screen, General Shell Tips, Virtual Terminals and screen, Concept
          Definitions, Date/Time/Calendars, Controlling Processes,
          Graphics tools (command line based)

   screen-dump, Graphics tools (command line based)
   screen-shots, Graphics tools (command line based)
   script, General Shell Tips, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Controlling
          services, Network Configuration

   scripting, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools
   scripts, Contributors , Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Controlling
          services

   scroll, The command-line history, Text Viewing Tools
   sdiff, Text Information Tools
   Search, Help, Finding files, Controlling Processes, Text Editors, Text
          manipulation tools, Finding Text Within Files, Regular
          Expressions

   Searches, Help, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular
          Expressions

   searching, Finding files, Wildcards
   section, Introduction, Formats, Conventions used in this guide,
          Resources used to create this document , Contributors ,
          License, The Unix Tools Philosophy, General Shell Tips, Other
          Key combinations, Text Viewing Tools , Text manipulation tools,
          Finding Text Within Files, Security, Miscellaneous, Mini-Guides

   Sections, License, Text manipulation tools, Miscellaneous
   sectors, Working with files and folders
   secure, Controlling services, Remote Administration Related
   security, Network Commands, Security, File Permissions
   selected, Text manipulation tools
   sell, Working with files and folders
   send, Feedback, Directing Input/Output, Usage, Shutting Down/Rebooting
          the System, Controlling Processes, Network Configuration , tar
          (tape archiver)

   Sends, Usage, Network Commands
   sensitiv, Working with files and folders
   sensitive, Finding files, Text Information Tools
   sentences, Text manipulation tools
   separate, Concept Definitions, Text manipulation tools
   separated, Text Information Tools, Text manipulation tools, Scheduling
          Commands to run in the background, Standard Wildcards (globbing
          patterns)

   separation, Text manipulation tools
   separator, Text manipulation tools
   sequentially, Performing more than one command
   serial, Text manipulation tools
   series, Network Commands
   server, Remote Administration Related, Graphics tools (command line
          based)

   servers, Internet Specific Commands, rsync
   service, Disclaimer, Controlling services
   services, Controlling services
   session, General Shell Tips
   set, General Shell Tips, Working with files and folders, Mass
          Rename/copy/link Tools, Date/Time/Calendars, Shutting
          Down/Rebooting the System, Security, File Permissions,
          Scheduling Commands to run in the background, Miscellaneous

   set bell style, General Shell Tips
   Sets, Controlling Processes, File Permissions, Graphics tools (command
          line based)

   setting, Network Configuration
   settings, Network Configuration
   setup, Moving around the filesystem, Text manipulation tools
   several, Introduction, Contributors , General Shell Tips, Working with
          files and folders, Conversion tools, Network Commands

   sftp, Remote Administration Related
   SGML, Availability of sources, Resources used to create this document
          , Contributors

   share, Text manipulation tools
   sharing, Network Commands
   shell, Conventions used in this guide, Shell Tips, General Shell Tips,
          Finding files, Controlling Processes, Controlling services,
          Users/Groups, Text manipulation tools, Remote Administration
          Related, Scheduling Commands to run in the background,
          Wildcards, Regular Expressions

   shells, Introduction, Other Key combinations, Users/Groups
   shopping, Text manipulation tools
   short, Miscellaneous
   shortcut, Shell Tips, Other Key combinations, Scheduling Commands to
          run in the background

   show, Moving around the filesystem, Working with files and folders,
          Finding information about the system, Controlling Processes,
          Text manipulation tools, Network Commands, tar (tape archiver),
          Graphics tools (command line based)

   shown, Conventions used in this guide, Moving around the filesystem,
          Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Text manipulation tools, Internet
          Specific Commands

   showrgb, Graphics tools (command line based)
   shows, Conventions used in this guide, Moving around the filesystem,
          Text Viewing Tools

   shred, Working with files and folders, File Permissions
   shredding, Working with files and folders
   shut, Working with files and folders, Remote Administration Related
   Shutdown, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System
   side, Text Information Tools, Text manipulation tools
   sign, Controlling Processes
   signal, Controlling Processes
   signalled, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   signals, Controlling Processes
   significant, Contributors
   similar, Conventions used in this guide, Virtual Terminals and screen,
          Help, Working with files and folders, Finding information about
          the system, Controlling Processes, Text Information Tools,
          Remote Administration Related, Some basic Security Tools,
          Working with MS-DOS files, Standard Wildcards (globbing
          patterns),
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   similarly, Controlling Processes
   single-user, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System
   site, Internet Specific Commands
   Sitemenu, Conventions used in this guide
   sites, Security
   six, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   size, Moving around the filesystem, Working with files and folders,
          Text manipulation tools, Graphics tools (command line based),
          RPM: Redhat Package Management System

   sizes, Working with files and folders
   skill, Controlling Processes
   slide, Graphics tools (command line based)
   slocate, Finding files
   small, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   smaller, Working with files and folders
   SMB, Network Commands
   snice, Controlling Processes
   sniffer, Network Commands
   software, Who would want to read this guide?, Working with files and
          folders

   some_file, Text manipulation tools
   some_text_file, Text manipulation tools
   sort, Moving around the filesystem, Text manipulation tools
   sorted, Moving around the filesystem
   Sorting, Text manipulation tools
   sound, Controlling services, Network Commands
   source, Finding files, Working with files and folders, Conversion
          tools

   sources, Availability of sources
   space, General Shell Tips, Finding information about the system, Text
          manipulation tools,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   space-seperated, Controlling Processes
   Spaces, General Shell Tips, Help, Text Information Tools, Text
          manipulation tools, File Permissions, Scheduling Commands to
          run in the background, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)

   special, Conventions used in this guide, General Shell Tips, Working
          with files and folders, File Permissions, Standard Wildcards
          (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions

   specific, Introduction, Resources used to create this document , The
          Unix Tools Philosophy, Usage, Date/Time/Calendars, Mini-Guides

   specifically, Disclaimer, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   specified, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   specifies, Scheduling Commands to run in the background, Standard
          Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions

   specify, Controlling Processes, Text manipulation tools, Network
          Commands, File Permissions, Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background

   speed, Other Key combinations
   spell, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Text manipulation tools
   spelling, The command-line history
   spend, Text Related Tools
   split, Working with files and folders
   Splits, Working with files and folders
   square, Regular Expressions
   squeeze, Text manipulation tools
   SS64.com list of commands, General Further Reading
   ssh, Virtual Terminals and screen, Remote Administration Related
   sshd, Controlling services
   stamp, Working with files and folders
   standard, Conventions used in this guide, Concept Definitions, Usage,
          Moving around the filesystem, Finding files, Working with files
          and folders, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Text manipulation
          tools, Mathematical tools, Internet Specific Commands, tar
          (tape archiver), Miscellaneous, Standard Wildcards (globbing
          patterns), Regular Expressions

   standard error, Concept Definitions
   standard input, Concept Definitions, Usage, Mathematical tools
   standard output, Concept Definitions, Usage, Regular Expressions
   standard wildcards, Conventions used in this guide, Moving around the
          filesystem, Finding files, Working with files and folders, Mass
          Rename/copy/link Tools, Internet Specific Commands, Standard
          Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions

   standards, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   Start, Conventions used in this guide, Moving around the filesystem,
          Finding files, Controlling Processes, Controlling services,
          Mathematical tools

   start-up, Checking the Hard Disk for errors
   started, Mathematical tools, Security
   starting, The command-line history, Moving around the filesystem, Mass
          Rename/copy/link Tools, Finding Text Within Files, Regular
          Expressions

   starts, Controlling Processes, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns),
          Regular Expressions

   stat, Working with files and folders
   stated, Conventions used in this guide
   statements, Finding files
   statistics, Finding information about the system
   status, Controlling services, Network Commands
   steep, Text Editors
   Step, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   Steps, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   sticky, File Permissions
   stop, General Shell Tips, Usage, Finding files, Shutting
          Down/Rebooting the System, Controlling Processes, Controlling
          services, Network Commands, Internet Specific Commands, tar
          (tape archiver)

   stored, Network Configuration
   Streams, Concept Definitions
   string, The command-line history, Help, Usage, Moving around the
          filesystem, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Finding information
          about the system, Text Information Tools, Text manipulation
          tools, Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Finding Text Within Files,
          Scheduling Commands to run in the background, Regular
          Expressions

   strings, Help
   structure, Contributors
   style, Moving around the filesystem, Date/Time/Calendars, Text
          Information Tools, Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Compression

   su, Managing users
   subdirectories, Moving around the filesystem, Finding files, Working
          with files and folders, File Permissions

   subdirectory, Working with files and folders
   subsections, Wildcards
   subsequent, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular
          Expressions

   substituted, General Shell Tips, Finding information about the system
   substitution, Finding information about the system
   substitution, command, Command Substitution
   Subsystem, Network Commands
   successful, Performing more than one command, Controlling Processes
   successfully, Performing more than one command
   suggesting, Text manipulation tools
   suggestions, Feedback, Contributors
   suid, File Permissions
   suited, Who would want to read this guide?, Who would not want to read
          this guide?

   sum, RPM: Redhat Package Management System
   summarise, Introduction
   summarised, Who would want to read this guide?
   summarises, Working with files and folders
   summary, Who would not want to read this guide?, Resources used to
          create this document , Help

   sums, Mathematical tools
   Sundaram, Rahul, Contributors
   Sunday, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   superior, Compression
   superuser, Managing users, Security
   support, Internet Specific Commands
   supports, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Internet Specific Commands
   suppress, Text Information Tools
   surf, Text Editors
   suspend, Controlling Processes
   Sweet Code, Finding more useful tools
   switch, Virtual Terminals and screen, Managing users, File Permissions

   switched, Duplicating disks
   symbol, Usage, Text manipulation tools
   Symbolic, Working with files and folders
   symbolic link, Working with files and folders
   symbols, General Shell Tips, Moving around the filesystem
   syncs, rsync
   syntax, Conventions used in this guide, Finding files, Working with
          files and folders, Mounting and Unmounting
          (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions), Finding Text Within
          Files, Remote Administration Related

   system, Introduction, Who would want to read this guide?, Disclaimer,
          The Unix Tools Philosophy, General Shell Tips, Help, Concept
          Definitions, Working with the file-system, Finding files,
          Finding information about the system, Date/Time/Calendars,
          Finding information about partitions, Controlling the system,
          Mounting and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions),
          Shutting Down/Rebooting the System, Controlling Processes,
          Controlling services, Managing users, Text Editors, Text
          Information Tools, Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Finding Text
          Within Files, Internet Specific Commands, Remote Administration
          Related, Security, Graphics tools (command line based), Working
          with MS-DOS files, Checking the Hard Disk for errors,
          Duplicating disks, Wildcards

   systems, Introduction, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Controlling
          services, Text Related Tools, Text Conversion/Filter Tools,
          Compression
     _________________________________________________________________

T

   TAB, General Shell Tips, Text manipulation tools
   tab-stop, Text manipulation tools
   table, Conversion tools, Network Configuration , Scheduling Commands
          to run in the background

   tabs, Text manipulation tools,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   tac, Text Viewing Tools
   tail, Text Viewing Tools
   take, Usage, Working with files and folders, Finding information about
          the system, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System, Controlling
          Processes, Controlling services, Users/Groups, Text
          manipulation tools, Conversion tools, Network Commands, Network
          Configuration , File Permissions, Scheduling Commands to run in
          the background

   taken, Duplicating disks,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   takes, Finding information about the system, Internet Specific
          Commands

   tape, tar (tape archiver)
   tar, rsync, Compression
   tarball, Formats, tar (tape archiver)
   target_name, Working with files and folders
   task, Introduction, Who would want to read this guide?, The Unix Tools
          Philosophy, Controlling services

   tasks, Who would want to read this guide?, The Unix Tools Philosophy,
          Controlling services, Text Editors

   tcpdump, Network Commands
   techinques, Duplicating disks
   technique, Directing Input/Output, Duplicating disks
   tee, Usage
   tell, Moving around the filesystem, Controlling Processes, Controlling
          services, Mathematical tools, Network Commands

   tells, Working with files and folders, Controlling the system
   tempory, Remote Administration Related
   ten, Text Viewing Tools
   tends, Finding information about the system
   term, Disclaimer, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   terminal, General Shell Tips, Virtual Terminals and screen, Shutting
          Down/Rebooting the System, Controlling Processes

   terminals, Virtual Terminals and screen
   terminate, Usage
   terms, License, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   test, Virtual Terminals and screen, Compression
   TeX, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   text, Conventions used in this guide, General Shell Tips, Usage,
          Working with files and folders, Text Related Tools, Text
          Editors, Text Viewing Tools , Text Information Tools, Text
          manipulation tools, Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Finding Text
          Within Files, Wildcards, Regular Expressions

   text-based, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   Texts, License
   textutils, RPM: Redhat Package Management System
   throw, Working with files and folders
   thumbnails, Graphics tools (command line based)
   ties, Text manipulation tools
   tiff, Graphics tools (command line based)
   tilde, General Shell Tips
   tile, Graphics tools (command line based)
   time, Who would want to read this guide?, Availability of sources,
          Working with files and folders, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools,
          Finding information about the system, Date/Time/Calendars,
          Shutting Down/Rebooting the System, Controlling Processes,
          Users/Groups, Text Related Tools, Text Viewing Tools , Network
          Commands, File Permissions, rsync, Compression, Scheduling
          Commands to run in the background, Wildcards

   time-stamps, Date/Time/Calendars
   times, The command-line history, Working with files and folders,
          Finding information about the system, Text manipulation tools,
          Regular Expressions

   timestamps, Working with files and folders
   tiny,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standard
          )

   TLDP, Contributors
   tmp, General Shell Tips
   today, The Unix Tools Philosophy
   todos, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   together, The Unix Tools Philosophy, File Permissions
   tool, Introduction, Who would want to read this guide?, Conventions
          used in this guide, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Help, Finding
          files, Working with files and folders, Mass Rename/copy/link
          Tools, Mounting and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive
          Partitions), Users/Groups, Text Viewing Tools , Text
          manipulation tools, Network Commands, Network Configuration ,
          Internet Specific Commands, Archiving Files, rsync,
          Miscellaneous

   tools, Introduction, Who would want to read this guide?, Who would not
          want to read this guide?, Conventions used in this guide, The
          Unix Tools Philosophy, Text Related Tools, Text Viewing Tools ,
          Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Network Commands, Compression,
          Graphics tools (command line based), Working with MS-DOS files,
          Scheduling Commands to run in the background

   top, Moving around the filesystem, Finding information about the
          system, Controlling Processes, Text Viewing Tools

   total, Working with files and folders
   totals, Finding information about the system
   touch, Working with files and folders
   tr, Text manipulation tools, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   tracepath, Network Commands
   traceroute, Network Commands
   trademark, Disclaimer
   traditional, Text Editors
   transfer, Working with files and folders, Network Commands,
          Duplicating disks

   transform, Graphics tools (command line based)
   translators, Availability of sources
   travel, Network Commands
   treated, Concept Definitions
   tree, Moving around the filesystem, Mounting and Unmounting
          (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions), Controlling Processes

   trick, Moving around the filesystem, Security
   tricks, Shell Tips
   tried, Mini-Guides
   try, General Shell Tips, Virtual Terminals and screen, Working with
          files and folders, Finding information about the system,
          Finding information about partitions, Controlling Processes,
          Text Viewing Tools , Text manipulation tools, File Permissions,
          Archiving Files, Working with MS-DOS files, Scheduling Commands
          to run in the background, Regular Expressions

   trying, The Unix Tools Philosophy, General Shell Tips, Finding files
   tunnel, Remote Administration Related
   turn, General Shell Tips, File Permissions
   tutorial, Finding information about the system
   TuxFinder, Specific Further reading
   types, Working with files and folders, Conversion tools
   typescript, General Shell Tips
     _________________________________________________________________

U

   UID, Controlling Processes
   umask, Security
   umount, Mounting and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions)
   un-readable, Working with MS-DOS files
   uname, Finding information about the system
   unbuffered, Concept Definitions
   uncompile, Graphics tools (command line based)
   unexpand, Text manipulation tools
   unfamiliar, Controlling Processes
   unfinished, Internet Specific Commands
   Unfortunately, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Controlling Processes
   uniq, Text manipulation tools
   unique, Text Information Tools, Text manipulation tools
   units, Mathematical tools
   UNIX, Introduction, Who would want to read this guide?, Disclaimer,
          The Unix Tools Philosophy, Concept Definitions, Mass
          Rename/copy/link Tools, Date/Time/Calendars, Shutting
          Down/Rebooting the System, Controlling services, Text Editors,
          Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Security, Compression

   UNIX-like, Compression
   unix-tools, The UNIX tools philosophy further reading
   unix2dos, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   unless, Disclaimer
   unlikely, Who would not want to read this guide?, Disclaimer, File
          Permissions

   unmount, Mounting and Unmounting (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions),
          Checking the Hard Disk for errors

   unmounted, Working with MS-DOS files
   unncessary, Introduction
   unrecoverable, Working with files and folders
   unset, File Permissions
   until, Usage, Working with files and folders, Controlling Processes,
          Text manipulation tools, Network Configuration , Scheduling
          Commands to run in the background

   unused, Working with MS-DOS files
   unusual, Conversion tools
   update, Working with files and folders, Users/Groups
   updated, Controlling Processes, Text Viewing Tools , File Permissions
   upload, Internet Specific Commands
   upper-case,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   uppercase, Text manipulation tools,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   uptime, Finding information about the system
   URL, Internet Specific Commands
   urpm*, Mandrake (urpm* commands, rpm based)
   urpmf, Mandrake (urpm* commands, rpm based)
   usage, General Shell Tips, Network Commands, Internet Specific
          Commands, Working with MS-DOS files

   usenet, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools
   user, General Shell Tips, Help, Concept Definitions, Moving around the
          filesystem, Finding information about the system, Shutting
          Down/Rebooting the System, Controlling Processes, Managing
          users, Users/Groups, Text manipulation tools, Network Commands,
          Internet Specific Commands, Remote Administration Related,
          Security, File Permissions, Working with MS-DOS files,
          Scheduling Commands to run in the background, Duplicating disks

   user-name, General Shell Tips
   username, Controlling Processes, Managing users, Text manipulation
          tools, Internet Specific Commands, Remote Administration
          Related, File Permissions, Scheduling Commands to run in the
          background

   usernames, Controlling Processes, Text manipulation tools
   users, Introduction, Who would want to read this guide?, General Shell
          Tips, Finding files, Finding information about the system,
          Shutting Down/Rebooting the System, Controlling Processes,
          Users/Groups, File Permissions, Scheduling Commands to run in
          the background, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)

   utilities, Text Viewing Tools , Compression, Standard Wildcards
          (globbing patterns)

   utility, Working with files and folders, Finding information about the
          system, Users/Groups, Text manipulation tools, Working with
          MS-DOS files
     _________________________________________________________________

V

   V7, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   valid, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)
   validity, Disclaimer
   value, Controlling Processes, Text manipulation tools, Security,
          Scheduling Commands to run in the background

   values, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   variety, Contributors , Controlling Processes, Controlling services,
          Internet Specific Commands

   verbose, Finding information about the system, Controlling Processes,
          tar (tape archiver), Working with MS-DOS files

   verify, Some basic Security Tools
   version, Who would want to read this guide?, Availability of sources,
          License, Finding information about the system, Text Viewing
          Tools , Finding Text Within Files

   versions, Availability of sources
   vi, Text Editors
   vice-versa, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   view, Help, Finding information about the system, Conversion tools,
          Graphics tools (command line based)

   viewers, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   viewing, Formats, Text Related Tools
   vim, Specific Further reading
   virtual, Shell Tips, Virtual Terminals and screen
   Virtually, Finding files
   visit, Introduction, rsync
   volunteers, Resources used to create this document
     _________________________________________________________________

W

   w, Finding information about the system, File Permissions
   waiting, Network Commands
   wave, Finding information about the system
   wc, Text Information Tools
   Web, Internet Specific Commands
   website, Internet Specific Commands
   week, Scheduling Commands to run in the background
   weeks, Date/Time/Calendars
   weird, Working with files and folders, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   West, William, Contributors
   wget, Internet Specific Commands
   whatis, Help
   whereis, Finding files
   which, Introduction, Conventions used in this guide, Resources used to
          create this document , General Shell Tips, Other Key
          combinations, Usage, Command Substitution, Finding files,
          Working with files and folders, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools,
          Finding information about the system, Controlling Processes,
          Controlling services, Network Commands, File Permissions,
          Compression, Miscellaneous

   white, Text manipulation tools
   whitespace,
          Useful categories of characters (as defined by the POSIX standa
          rd)

   who, Finding information about the system
   whoami, Finding information about the system
   whois, Internet Specific Commands
   wild, tar (tape archiver), Graphics tools (command line based)
   wildcard, General Shell Tips, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Standard
          Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions

   wildcards, Conventions used in this guide, General Shell Tips, Moving
          around the filesystem, Finding files, Working with files and
          folders, Mass Rename/copy/link Tools, Internet Specific
          Commands, Wildcards, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns),
          Regular Expressions

   Wildcars, Wildcards
   window, The command-line history, Virtual Terminals and screen,
          Finding information about the system, Graphics tools (command
          line based)

   windowing, Introduction, Graphics tools (command line based)
   windows, Working with files and folders, Mounting and Unmounting
          (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions), Text Related Tools, Text
          Conversion/Filter Tools, Network Commands, Compression

   Windows-format, Text Conversion/Filter Tools
   word, Introduction, The command-line history, Usage, Finding files,
          Finding information about the system, Text Information Tools,
          Text manipulation tools, Text Conversion/Filter Tools, Finding
          Text Within Files

   words, Conventions used in this guide, The command-line history,
          Moving around the filesystem, Text Information Tools, Text
          manipulation tools, Internet Specific Commands, File
          Permissions, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns)

   work, Availability of sources, Conventions used in this guide, General
          Shell Tips, Other Key combinations, Help, Usage, Finding files,
          Working with files and folders, Mounting and Unmounting
          (Floppy/CDROM/Hard-drive Partitions), Shutting Down/Rebooting
          the System, Controlling Processes, Text manipulation tools,
          Mathematical tools, Network Commands, Internet Specific
          Commands, File Permissions, tar (tape archiver), Compression,
          Graphics tools (command line based), Working with MS-DOS files,
          Scheduling Commands to run in the background, Standard
          Wildcards (globbing patterns), Regular Expressions

   work-around, Internet Specific Commands
   working, Availability of sources, Contributors , General Shell Tips,
          Working with the file-system, Moving around the filesystem,
          Text Viewing Tools , Text manipulation tools, Network Commands,
          Compression, Working with MS-DOS files, Regular Expressions

   works, Introduction, General Shell Tips, Virtual Terminals and screen,
          Help, Finding files, Finding information about the system,
          Controlling Processes, Text Information Tools, Text
          manipulation tools, Network Commands, Security

   world, General Shell Tips, Internet Specific Commands
   write, Text manipulation tools, File Permissions
   writes, General Shell Tips, Duplicating disks
   writing, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Working with files and folders,
          File Permissions, Scheduling Commands to run in the background,
          Miscellaneous

   written, The Unix Tools Philosophy, Virtual Terminals and screen, Text
          Viewing Tools , Conversion tools, File Permissions, rsync

   wrong, Concept Definitions
     _________________________________________________________________

X

   xargs, Finding information about the system
   XML, Resources used to create this document
   xset, General Shell Tips
   xterminal, Shutting Down/Rebooting the System
     _________________________________________________________________

Y

   year, Date/Time/Calendars
   years, Date/Time/Calendars
   YYYY, Date/Time/Calendars
     _________________________________________________________________

Z

   zcmp, Text Viewing Tools
   zdiff, Text Viewing Tools
   zero, Mathematical tools, Standard Wildcards (globbing patterns),
          Regular Expressions

   zeroes, Working with files and folders, File Permissions
   zgrep, Text Viewing Tools
   zgv, Graphics tools (command line based)
   zip, Compression
   zipgrep, Compression
   zipinfo, Compression
   zipped, Compression
   zless, Text Viewing Tools
   zmore, Text Viewing Tools

  Notes

   [1]

   This information was adopted (with editing) from Mandrakesoft's
   Command Line Manual, see [7] in the Bibliography for further
   information.
   [2]

   This information (as quoted) has come from the "Please, For the Love
   of All That's Recoverable, Shred Your Hard Drive!" article, number 18
   in the Bibliography
   [3]

   This particular command and explanation has been used (with editing)
   from the Linux Online Classroom, see [4] in the Bibliography for
   further information.
   [4]

   This information has been taken from the Linux Cookbook (without
   editing). See [3] in the Bibliography for further information.
   [5]

   These examples are based off information from the enscript manual
   page, see [12] in the Bibliography for further information.
   [6]

   This way around the wildcard limitation has been adopted (with a tiny
   amount of editing) from wget manual page, see [9] in the Bibliography
   for further information.
   [7]

   This example and tiny parts of the explanation have been taken from
   the Linux Online Classroom, see [4] in the Bibliography for further
   information.
   [8]

   This example has come been used from (unedited) "CLI for noobies:
   import, display, mogrify", see [16] in the Bibliography for further
   information.
   [9]

   This information has come from (without editing) a post on the
   LinuxChix techtalk mailing list, please see [16] in the Bibliography
   for further information.
   [10]

   This information comes from the cron manual page with small additions
   (no changes to original content), refer to [13] in the Bibliography
   for further information.
   [11]

   This information information comes from the Linux Cookbook (without
   editing). See [3] in the Bibliography for further information.
   [12]

   Note that the list under section 24.1.2 comes from the RPM manual
   page, see [11] in the Bibliography for further details.
